The concept of International human resource management refers to all activities, processes and functions that promote acquisition, development and retention of the discipline’s respective resources (Svendsen, 2011). It has been realised that apart from the burgeoning competition in the global market, prominent factors such as increased uncertainty, dynamism and volatility in global arena compel organisations to globalise human resource management concept (Schuler, 2000). Drawing on the stated factors in global arena, international or contemporary HRM is faced with massive challenges in different aspects such as application of comparative approaches across national boundaries, recruitment and selection processes, human right issues, employment relations and performance management.

Therefore, this report will critically examine and evaluate challenges confronting contemporary or international human resource management practice in relation to the following IHRM areas presented in the form of chapters (four chapters) using three key academic papers or articles:

Challenges in comparative human resource management to international human resource. This will be presented in chapter one using Peltonen and Varaa’s (2011) Critical Approaches to comparative international human resource management as the primary adopted academic paper for analysis of this chapter
International selection processes and its confronted challenges in developing countries/continents such as Asia and Africa and how these can be resolved. This will be presented in chapter two using Thoo Lily’s (1999) International HR Assignment in Recruiting and Selecting: Challenges, Failures and Best Practices for analysis of this chapter.
Current academic and media debates on human right issues in relation to forced labour. This will be presented in chapter three employing media report from The Guardian (2014) titled; revealed: Asian slave labour producing prawns for supermarkets in US and UK presented by Hodal and Kelly (2014).
Lastly, presented in chapter four is personal reflective account of author’s insight on how module International human resource management can direct and inform author’s future global management role.

2.0 Chapter One: Comparative Approaches to International Human Resource Management and Associated Drawbacks

2.1 Introduction/Background

Comparative approaches to international human resource management holds a significant position in effective management of human resource management (Brewster, 1999; Brewster & Hegewisch, 1994; Clark & Pugh, 2000; Brewster et al., 2004 and Dickmann et al., 2008). This is because comparative approaches adopts broader view to management of human resource practices when compared to the mainstream approaches such as Universalist approaches to international human resource management research (Keating & Thompson, 2004). Consequently, comparative approaches are likely to look into broader societal challenges and provide solutions accordingly (Peltonen and Varaa, 2011). As indicated earlier, this chapter adopts Peltonen and Varaa (2011) Critical Approaches to comparative international human resource management. This chapter critically reviews comparative approaches to management of international human resource practices and associated complexities or challenges. The chapter premises that there are notable benefits of multinational corporations (MNCs) using comparative approaches to managing international human resource management. However, there are undeniable challenges when applying comparative approaches to manage international human resource management. This was made evident in the key paper, Peltonen and Varaa (2011) and other reviewed papers and articles.

2.2 Comparative Approaches to IHRM and Associated Drawbacks

Comparative approach to international human resource management counteracts the benefits of human resource management theories and models that were developed to suit American and European context (Clark and Pugh, 2000). It is obvious that individualised approaches to employment relations and people management has its origin in America where unions are comparatively weak in contrast to Continental European environments with stronger trade unions (Peltonen and Varaa, 2011). This is to infer that comparative IHRM approaches proves that what is taken as a universal or best approach has its root in the United State of American system and European system, which is being transferred and applied on other non-European or non- western context as best approach or practice (Dore, 2000; Mintzberg, 2004; Ghoshal, 2005; Pfeffer & Fong, 2005).

The mainstream human resource management theories and models formulated or developed in the 1980s in North America and United kingdom (Maurice et al., 1980; Fombrun et al., 1984; Beer et al., 1985; Schuler and Jackson, 1987; Kochan et al., 1986 and Storey, 1992) made way to other developed countries and developing countries (Tung, 1984; Maurice et al., 1986; Tung, 1993 and Budhwar and Debrah, 2001). The stated concept so far has gained wide international recognition over the past years. However, there has been a consensus in the last three decades towards mainstream human resource approaches and theories being inadequate and overly vague to effectively address human resource management issues facing multinational or international corporations across national borders (Clark et al., 2000 and 1999). Consequently, a significant number of multinational or international corporations are in pursuit of effective measures or approaches to manage international human resource management (Taylor et al., 1996). Thus, the emergence of international human resource management in management discourse and practice with a massive growing recognition (Scullion and Starkey, 2000). The emergence of international human resource management birthed contextual or divergent approaches of international human resource management, approaches such as cross-national comparative human resources, expatriate management and cross-cultural diversity in multinational or international corporations (Caliguiri, 1999).

Comparative approaches to IHRM practices accentuates national-institutional differences in human resource practice across the globe, which has its root in emerging international human resource management, albeit has recently developed into an independent area or field developed by Alder (1983). Comparative IHRM is distinct from main-stream American/European human resource management discipline that tend towards universalist perspective, where human resource management is treated as existing general phenomenon irrespective of where it is practiced or applied (Peltonen and Varaa, 2011). In contrast comparative HRM approach emphasise that human resource management practices will be best understood as societal phenomena, influenced or informed by institutional, cultural and political contexts (Brewster, 1999 and 2007). Furthermore, Brewster (2007) argues that contextual perspective in comparative HRM makes essential divergence in many aspects in the practice of human resource management. From a positive dimension or perspective, Peltonen and Vaara (2011) notes that comparative approaches to international human resource management are able to think of broader societal issues and problems in managing global human resource as to manage related issues effectively. However, in the midst of numerous benefits with application of comparative approaches to international human resource management, there are notable perceived challenges, constraints and drawbacks to multinational corporations’ adoption of comparative approaches to manage international human resource management (Brewster et al., 2007).

Explicitly, the challenges with comparative approaches to international human resource management were deduced by Clark, Grant and Heijltjes (2000) as the followings;

Issues in effective co-ordination of human resource practices in multinational firms, considering the diverse and contextual nature of involved factors such as national policy, dictates and regulations
Effective management of international assignment assignees or appointees such as expatriates, inpatriates and flexpatriates that often undertake international assignment from Perlmutter’s (1969) international staffing approaches.
With the adoption of comparative approaches, multinational corporations are faced with challenges in successful transfer of home or parent company/country policies to host country or company without encountering culture clash that often result to international assignment failure (Clark, Grant and Heijltjes, 2000).

The main debated challenges or drawbacks of comparative approaches international human resource management, Brewster and Mayrhofer (2007) postulates to have emerged as a result of existing differences in human resource management across national borders or different countries. Highlighted challenges have close ties with the influence of host or national culture on comparative human resource management practices where multinational corporations are confronted with challenges of aligning international human resource management practice practices and process with influence of national or host culture such as government rules, regulations and policies (Dowling et al., 2008). Similarly, Briscoe, Schuler and Tarique (2012) and Sylwia (2013) buttress that multinational corporations (MNCs) usually clash with host or national culture. To this end, it can be argued that such clash takes place perhaps as a result of multinational corporations and involved executives failure to realise that no one is culture is the same, thus, there are remarkable cultural differences in different countries, however, which again incline towards the Universalist approach. The realisation that the Western best-fit or universal approach will not suit all context or environment. Additionally, Briscoe, Schuler and Tarique (2012) deduce that multinational corporations may be aware of cultural differences but decide to ignore or negate existence of such differences because of opinionated belief that home countries practices can be transferred from parent country or company to host country or company in line with Perlmutter’s (1969) ethnocentric staffing approaches.

2.3 Conclusion

In conclusion, comparative approaches to international human resource management reveals significant differences in interpretation and implementation of human resource management principles, theories and models in different countries or across national borders (Harzing and Pinington, 2007). It is hoped that this chapter raises awareness for managers and organisations who operate globally or internationally to be cognizant of highlighted or examined issues.

The chapter also proved that there are notable benefits in multinational organisations using comparative approaches to manage human resource (Brewster & Hegewisch, 1994; Clark & Pugh, 2000; Brewster et al., 2004; and Dickman et al., 2008). The stated benefits encompasses comparative international human resource management to think broader and provide solutions to a wider society. Thereby, contextualising application of human resource management procedures and principles. In the midst of associated benefits, multinational corporations are faced with issues of not been able to apply preferred methods, principles and approaches as a result of massive influence of national culture or host culture on corporate or organisational culture (Dowling et al., 2008). This academics severally linked to the four main staffing approaches, especially ethnocentric approach, which transfer of home company’s value to host country but was influenced by host country (Perlmutter, 1969), discussed in the subsequent chapter.

In sum, the chapter argue that adoption of comparative approaches to international human resource management often result in challenges of effective co-ordination of human resource practices in multinational firms since it is about comparative management of human resources. Secondly, there are issues in management of international assignment assignees such as expatriates, inpatriates and flexpatriates (Clark, Grant and Heijltjes, 2000). Thirdly, adoption of comparative approaches have constraints or drawbacks in successful transfer of home country policies to host country without culture clash, which is one of the predominant cause of international assignment failure (Clark, Grant and Heijltjes, 2000).

2.4 References

Adler, N. J. (1991) International dimensions of organizational behaviour, PWS-KENT Pub. Co., Boston, Mass.

Briscoe, D., Schuler, R. and Tarique, I. (2012) International Human Resource Management: Policies and Practices for Multinational Enterprises, 4^thedn. Oxon; New York: Routledge.

Boxall, P. (1995) ‘Building the theoryof comparative HRM’. Human Resource Management Journal, 5 (5), pp. 5–17.

Boxall, P. (1996) ‘The strategic HRM debate and the resource-based view of the firm’. Human Resource Management Journal, 6, (5), pp.5–17.

Brewster, C., Sparrow, P. and Harris, H. (2005) Towards a new model of globalizing HRM. International Journal of Human Resource Management [online]. 16(6) pp. 949-970 [Accessed 11 November 2011].

Brewster, C. (2007) Comparative HRM: European Views and Perspective. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18 (5), 769-787.

Brewster, C. (1999) Strategic Human Resource Management: The Value of Different Paradigms. Oxford: Blackwell.

Brewster, C and Hegewisch, A. (1994) Policy and Practice in European Human Resource Practice: The Price Waterhouse Cranfield Survey. London: Routledge.

Brewster, C., Mayrhofer, W. and Morley, M. (Eds.) (2004) Human Resource Management in

Europe: Evidence of Convergence?, Butterworth Heinemann, London.

Brewster, C. J. and Larsen, H. H. (2000) Human Resource Management in Northern Europe. Oxford, Blackwell

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Budhwar, P. S. and Debrah, Y. A. (2001) Human Resource Management in Developing Countries. London: Routledge.

Carvalho, M. T. G. (1999) ‘Human Resource Management Policies and Practices – the Influence of Gender’. British Academy of Management Annual Conference, Manchester.

Clark, T., Grant, D. and Heijltjes, M. (2000) ‘Researching comparative and international human resource management’. International Studies of Management and Organization, (29), pp. 6-17.

Clark, T and Pugh, D. (2000) Similarities and Differences in European Conceptions of Human Resource Management. International Studies in Management and Organisations, 29 (4), pp. 73-83.

Clark, T., Gospel, H. and Montgomery, J. (1999) ‘Running on the spot? A review of twenty years of research on the management of human resources in comparative and international perspective’, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, (10), pp. 520-544.

Clark, T., Grant, D. and Heijltjes, M. (2000) ‘Researching comparative and international human resource management’. International Studies of Management and Organization, (29), pp. 6-17.

Drucker, P. (1954) The Practice of Management, Harper and Row, New York. Fombrun, C. J., Tichy, N. M. and Devanna, M. A. (1984) Strategic Human Resource Management, John Wiley, New York.

Dickman, M, Brewster, C and Sparrow, P. (2008) International Human Resource Management: An European Perspective. London: Routledge.

Dowling, P., Festing, M. and Engle, A. D. (2008) International Human Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context. 5^thedn. South Melbourne: Thomson.

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Schneider, S. (2001) ‘Introduction to the international human resource management special issue’. Journal of World Business, (36), pp. 341-351

Schuler, R. S. (2000) ‘The Internationalization of Human Resource Management’. Journal of International Management, (6), pp. 239-260.

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3.0 Chapter Two: Review of International assignment Selection processes and Challenges In Emerging Countries

3.1 Introduction

Due to the fact that, selection mistakes are likely to be left noticed and too late to be corrected because employees assigned to undertake international assignments are usually sent to distant locations with likely potential issues if selection was not adequately conducted (Thoo, 2013). However, if concerted efforts are made by MNCs and selection team towards curtailing potential chances of appointees’ failure by following international human resource selection best practices (Waxin, 2006). Clearly, selection of employees to fill international assignments is particularly challenging because the prime requirements for candidates’ assessment primarily focuses on the job context mostly the technical aspect of the job rather than also include cultural intelligence and ability to address and overcome culture shock. This is because reports and surveys such as GMAC (2005), Price Waterhouse (1997) and ORC worldwide (2002) report that a striking number of employees sent on international assignment have premature repatriation as result of inability to adapt to culture of the host country and selectors’ ignorance of overlooking key requirements such as cultural intelligence and culture shock (Caligiuri, Tarique, and Jacobs, 2009).

This chapter critically examine various international selection processes in developing countries such as China, Japan, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, India and problems in selection processes in developing country. It is hoped that review of these processes and encountered challenges will help those involved in international selection process in emerging countries to be aware of critical failure factors that contribute to international assignment failure and adopt best practices to have effective selection processes. This is because adequate understanding of reviewed international selection processes in developing countries, root causes of appointees’ failure, and as well as challenges encountered by selection team and appointees will help MNCs to avoid or reduce chances of international assignment not meeting desired outcome. This chapter will employ Thoo Lily’s (1999) International HR Assignment in Recruiting and Selecting: Challenges, Failures and Best Practices for analysis of this chapter.

3.2 Typology of International Selection Approaches in Developing Countries

The literature on international human resource management adopts four terms in describing the predominant approaches used by multinational firms to select their global workforce. These referred four terms originates form Perlmutter’s (1969) multinational typology staffing approaches linked to three varying international executive attitudes known as ethnocentric, polycentric, and geocentric (Waxin, 2006). The distinctions of three staffing policies were based on senior management presumptions of geographical and functional definitions. However, Heenan and Perlmutter (1979) later refined perlmutter’s (1969) geographical international staffing policies and included a fourth approach known as regiocentric. In elaboration, Perlmutter (1969) infer that ethnocentric staffing approach is adopted when the MNC decides to appoint managers from parent country nationals (PCNs) to manage subsidiaries in the host country. This means that key decisions are usually made at Headquarters with little autonomy given to subsidiaries. From an ethnocentric point of view, senior management and technology gurus all come from Parent company or headquarter with little or no room for promotions of Host Country Nationals to Headquarter. Application or adoption of ethnocentric approaches in developing countries, for example in China, MNCs are often inclined to appointing a Parent Country National to manage and direct subsidiaries compared to European or Western MNCs, according to empirical study conducted by Harzing (2001a).

The second approach polycentric staffing approach often focus on appointment of Host country nationals with implication of host or national country’s government imposing barriers or dictating staffing approaches (Waxin, 2006). In such case, there is not much room for promotions of HCNs to the corporate office or headquarter. The third approach- geocentric staffing policy is adopted by multinational corporations when there is an appointment of best qualified candidate irrespective of nationality to undertake international assignments. Best qualified candidates could include candidates from third country nationals (TCNs). In such case, there are equal opportunities for both employees of PCN and HCN to have career advancements and promotions (Harzing and Penington 2007). The fourth emerging approach called regiocentric staffing approach occurs when managers or appointees are transferred or seconded on regional basis which usually forms mid-way station between typical polycentric and ethnocentric approach (Heenan & Perlmutter, 1979).

Selection of key management positions to distance culture or varying location that massively differs from the assignees’ culture should strongly consider and select best suited approaches that are subject to MNC factors such as capability, qualification, structure, budget, and duration of international assignment (Dowling, Festing, & Engle 2008). It is important to note that there are specific challenges in international selection of employees to undertake international assignment in developing countries (Thoo, 2013). To this end, the next section critically reviews and examines challenges in selecting employees for international assignment in developing countries.

3.3 International Selection Challenges in Developing Countries

In contrast to common disbelief, studies (e.g. Thoo, 2013 and Waxin, 2006) have shown that adoption of ethnocentric approaches to international selection where home-based best practices are transferred to the Host Country without sufficient consideration of different factors that may affect adoption of such approach. This is because HRM is now diverging and going towards comparative human resource management rather than the traditional converging or Universalist international human resource management that motions that one best approach is effective in managing all context (Dowling, Festing, & Engle, 2008). The implication that comes with ethnocentric approaches of transfer of home country practices to the host country may not work well and might create cultural clash in the host country.

It is paramount for MNCs and IHRM practitioners to understand reasons why international assignees fail on international assignment in order to carefully study and effectively execute successful international selection criteria (Thoo, 2013). According to Thoo (2013) one of the main reasons for international assignment is because of assignees’ inability to adapt to local culture often called cultural shock which results in appointees’ premature repatriation or failure. It can be argued that most MNCs in developing country mostly adopt ethnocentric approaches by transferring home or parent company’s values and cultures to the host country without considering that such practices might lead to cultural clash. This is predominantly common with Asian MNCs often adopting ethnocentric approaches by imposing home values on host country (Waxin, 2006). This indicate that the international selection team of such MNCs in developing country will negate aspect of cultural intelligence as part of the selection criteria and discount credibility of such test in the selection approaches or techniques (Caligiuri, Tarique, and Jacobs, 2009). This was evident in the case of Malaysian and Indian expatriates who failed repeatedly on international assignment. When asked of the cause of their failures, they remarked the key cause to difficulty in cultural integration and adaptability that led to culture clash (Thoo, 2013) deeply rooted in selectors’ failure to include cultural intelligence test as part of the selection process. However, people react differently to situations such as adapting to foreign culture, therefore, multicultural adaptability, cultural intelligence or ability to overcome culture shock may not be an essential assessment criteria to select employees sent on international assignment (Waxin, 2006). Earley (2012) described cultural intelligence as assignee’s ability to interact and maintain effectiveness across culture by being able to reach a state of homeostasis. Also, Pedersen (1995) described culture shock as a state of an assignee in host country as a result of change in one’s familiar culture. Correspondingly, international assignment success depends on the technical suitability of the employees i.e. assignee’s ability to successfully interpret required managerial and technical skill and able to maintain a state of homeostasis, i.e. the ability of appointees to be reasonably comfortable in the host country where he or she has been transferred to (Thoo, 2013). Undeniably, there are certain qualities such as cultural intelligence, motivation, adaptability and entrepreneurship that contributes to international assignees’ experience that results to more success rate of international assignments (Baruch, 2002). This is not to infer that these are the only factors that contributes to successful international assignment because individually react differently to different situations (Thoo, 2013).

Furthermore, another notable problem observed in emerging countries’ international selection process is the effect of Hofstede’s (2001) masculinity versus femininity and power distance cultural dimension on selection processes. Hofstede (2001) predicts that most developing countries scores high in power distance and masculinity versus femininity, where there are visibly noticed hierarchical and bureaucratic selection processes and most cases women are grossly underrepresented and their values grossly undermined. This comes with the implication of selection processes in developing countries having inconsistent and non-transparent processes that secludes women and poor citizens who are not even opportune to make it to the recruitment phase (Caligiuri & Colakoglu, 2007).

3.4 conclusion

The chapter presented the complexities involving selection of staff for international assignments in developing countries such as Malaysia, China, India and Africa. Reviewed and examined complexities that ranged from international staffing policies, especially developing countries preference in adoption of ethnocentric approaches to international selection processes. It is aimed that reviewed selection processes and associated challenges will serve as a toolkit and wake-up call for MNCS in developing countries to realise that they need to look into appropriate contextual measures and make a move from the one-size-fit all measures in order to minimise international assignment failures.

3.4 References

Baruch, Y. (2002). ‘No Such Thing as a Global Manager’, Business Horizons, January–February, 36–4

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Harzing, A. W. K. and Christensen, C. (2004). Expatriate failure: Time to abandon the concept? Career Development International, 9(6-7): 616-626.

Heenan, D. A. and Perlmutter, H. V. (1979). Multinational organization development.

Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Hofstede, Geert (2001). Culture’s Consequences: comparing values, behaviours, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications

Perlmuter, H. V. (1969) The tortuous evolution of the multinational corporation. Columbia Journal of World Business, 4(1), 9-18.

Price Waterhouse (1997), International Assignments: European Policy and Practice. Report International Education and Foreign Language Studies in Higher Education (ISBN 0160749123) Published by this Congress Committee in 2005.

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4.0 Chapter Three: Human Right Issues on Forced Labour

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents academic debates on human rights in relation to forced labour, such as child labour, slavery and trafficking. Also, the chapter discusses issues in the stated discourse and how they can be effectively addressed and combated by responsible bodies. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a critical analysis of the issues surrounding forced labour and how it can be addressed or combated. The chapter presents synthesis of legislative framework on forced labour and the law through media and academic stances. Findings reveal that workers’ right system of protection are patchy and inconsistent, perhaps due to the lack of unclear regulatory authority or monitoring employment practices. The chapter concludes by proffering series of recommendations for improving combat of forced labour. This chapter anchors on debates and report from International Labour Office (2014) report titled- Economics of forced labour: ILO says forced labour generates annual profits of US$ 150 billion. In order to have a synthesis of academic debates and media reports, the chapter also draws on media report from The Guardian (2014) titled- Revealed: Asian slave labour producing prawns for supermarkets in US and UK presented by Hodal and Kelly (2014).

4.2 academic and media debates on Human Right Issues in relation to Forced Labour

Forced labour also known as compulsory labour can be described as any nature of services that compels or exacts people to work or render services under menace or involuntarily ILO’s Forced Labour Convention of 1930 (No. 29). In recent time, there have been reports of about 880,000 workers subjected to forced labour by abusive employers as result of certain reasons such as migration where immigrants due to basic needs become vulnerable to induced or forced labour in Europe (Clark, 2013 and International Labour Office, 2013).

Labour exploitations rooted in forced labour, similar to other types of crime, has evolved with little effort or attempts made by legislators and governing regulators to circumscribe it. The reality that forced labour sometimes known as labour exploitation still exist in western countries such as United States of America and United Kingdom brings to paramount importance the necessity of reviewing and discussing this chapter in order to contribute to combating fundamental human right issues on forced labour. According to International Labour Organization (2014), forced labour is largely recognised as a crime, however, is seldom prosecuted because of problems in expressing several crimes that constitute forced labour within national laws, policies and regulations. Furthermore, there are impediments to law implementation and classification of victims of forced labour (International Labour Office, 2005). This implies that forced labour may be interpreted wrongly and not appropriately documented as required (Balch, 2005).

International Labour Office (2014) reports that forced labour with specific reference to companies in private sector about three times more in previous estimates on illegal profit gained from forced labour generates about 150 billion US dollar in illicit profits every year. The International Labour Office (2014) report shows that two thirds of estimated 150 billion or 99 billion US dollar was gained from commercial sexual exploitation, while another 51 billion US dollar was generated from forced economic exploitation such as domestic work, agriculture and other related economic activities. The number of people in forced labour, trafficking and modern slavery are estimated to be at about 21 million in total (International Labour Office, 2012). International Labour Office’s (2014) report raises awareness why everyone, including private businesses, need to work in harmony to eradicate or combat fundamental evil in forced labour, albeit, it generates huge profit. Ideally, irrespective of associated profit forced labour is not good for business and economic developmental pursuits especially for affected victims (ILO TV, 2014).

According to Dottridge (2005) and Clark (2013), victims often face forced or compulsory labour as a result of the followings;

Human Sales: This happens when human beings are sold to an illicit buyer. This is very common with women trafficking. Aside women trafficking, there are still a lot of cases in illicit inter-country purchase of children, especially in Africa.

Deception of migrants or child’s migrant parents: Parents of victims are often deceived by a middle dealer who recruits children with promises of brighter future and return of children’s earnings to parents. However, fail to keep to promises.

Abduction: This occurs during political clashes and violence, albeit, also happens in peaceful circumstances where abducted children or adults are auctioned and sold in a sale market. Also, sometimes victims are captured for purposes of illicit inter-country purchase on illegal terms. To make matters worse, some countries legalise abduction via means of procuring wives.

Marriage: This occurs when a man’s main rationale behind getting married to a woman is for reasons of acquire control over acquired bride’s labour/services. This often happen particularly in polygamous homes.

Imprisonment: These affect victims who have been convicted of either criminal or political offences. Thereby, obligated or forced to work for the private individual involved, such as; prison guards.

Birth/descent: Forced labour takes place when the victim is born into some form of servile status, which imply that victim may be subsequently transferred without the consent of the victim’s parent because of agreed servile status.

Debt: This happen when an incurred debt has to worked-off by the victim or by victim’s relative, often known as pawn, meaning debt bondage

Contrary to Dottridge (2005) and Clark’s (2013) causes of forced labour, International Labour Office (2014) report posits lack of education, illiteracy, gender and immigration especially from Bulgaria, Poland and Romania, and outside Europe such as China, Morocco and Turkey as the main sources or causes of forced labour (Clark, 2013). Also, the report showed economic factors such as income shocks and poverty as the prime factors that pushes people into forced labour. Consequently, International Labour Office (2014) reports that more than half of the victims in forced labour are observed to be women and girls usually found in commercial sexual exploitation and domestic work. Whilst men and boys are usually found in forced economic exploitation in agriculture, construction and mining. For example, academics believe that people forced to work for little or no pay for years under threats of life-threatening violence are predominantly found in Asia in producing seafood sold by prominent US, British and other European retailers according to Guardian (2014) reported by Hodal and Kelly (2014). The Guardian (2014) also reported an investigation in Thailand on a case where men were purchased and sold like likes of animals and used against their will in producing prawns mostly known as shrimps in the United States and United Kingdom. The produced prawns are reported to have been sold by leading global supermarkets such as Walmart, Carrefour, Costco and Tesco (Hodal and Kelly, 2014). Men who managed to escape from the sea food production company and other related production companies narrated to Guardian (2014) their horrific compulsory work conditions. Conditions such as 20-hour shifts, regular beatings, constant torture and execution for refusal or noticed misbehaviour. In addition, some of the victims were often given methamphetamines to enable them carry on working. There were some who had seen their fellow slaves executed in front of them for resistance (Hodal and Kelly, 2014).

Speaking of debates on forced labour in the United Kingdom, there have been three key debates and arguments in forced labour according to Forced Labour Monitoring Group (2014). The group reported that government shows lassitude in obligating organisations to bring to an end slavery practices or offences from their supply chains. In addition, government has not provided adequate resources to responsible bodies to combat the fight against forced labour in the country. Furthermore, government has not reversed initial decision of domestic workers’ visa being tied to certain employers- this predominantly puts the victims involved more vulnerable to slavery and exploitation. Consequently, there have been several international bodies such as; European Convention of Human Rights, Council of Europe Convention, ILO Conventions and European Charter of Fundamental Rights to combat the fight against forced labour (Clark 2013 and Forced Labour Monitoring Group 2014). If forced labour has to be brought to an end, the chapter suggest that government address and tackle aforementioned issues in order to achieve desired outcome in the debated issue.

4.3 Conclusion

In sum, the fight against coercive and compulsive forced labour is yet to receive an impressive attention from government and supporting bodies such as European Convention of Human Rights, Council of Europe Convention, ILO Conventions and European Charter of Fundamental Rights (Clark 2013 and International Labour Office, 2013). The debated issue of forced labour has caught a significant number of interest from academics and human right activists to combat associated issues. The chapter provided some overview and debates of current developments in human rights issues in relation to forced labour, predominantly in relation to migration, slavery, child labour and human trafficking. The chapter premises that forced labour is still in existence and draws from a case study of Thailand’s seafood production company sold by prominent US, British and other European retailers according to Guardian (2014) through exploitation of involuntary human services (Hodal and Kelly 2014).

4.4 REFERENCES

International Labour Office (2014) Economics of forced labour: ILO says forced labour generates annual profits of US$ 150 billion. Available online at < http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_243201/lang–en/index.htm> [Accessed 22^nd December 2014]

International Labour Office (2005) ‘Human Trafficking and Forced Labour Exploitation: Guidelines for Legislation and Law Enforcement’, Forced Labour, Paper 22, International Labour Organisation, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_norm/— declaration/documents/publication/wcms_081999.pdf

Hodal and Kelly (2014) Revealed: Asian slave labour producing prawns for supermarkets in US and UK. The Guardian. Available online at < http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jun/10/supermarket-prawns-thailand-produced-slave-labour> [Accessed 10^th January 2015]

International Labour Organization (2014) Forced Labour: A private sector problem. Available online at < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vttEPA6Xffk> [Accessed 5th January 2015]

Phillips, N., Bhaskaran, R., Nathan, D and Upendranadh, C. (2011) Vulnerable workers in global production networks: Case studies of forced and child labour in Brazil and India working paper series: Child labour in global production networks: Poverty, vulnerability and ‘adverse incorporation’ in the Delhi garments sector. Chronic Poverty Research Centre. Available online at <http://www.chronicpoverty.org/publications/details/child-labour-in-global-production-networks> [Accessed 7th January 2015]

Clark, N (2013) Detecting and Tackling Forced Labour in Europe. Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Online, available at <http://www.jrf.org.uk/publications/detecting-tackling-forced-labour-europe> [Accessed 10^th January 2015)

Dottridge, M. (2005), ‘Types of Forced Labour and Slavery-like Abuse Occurring in

Africa Today: A Preliminary Classification’, Cahiers d’Études Africaines, Vol. 45,

Cahier 179/180, Esclavage moderne ou modernité de l’esclavage?, pp. 689-712.

Forced Labour Monitoring Group (2014) New Report: ‘Forced Labour in the UK: what next?’. Available online at < http://forcedlabour.org/?p=271> [Accessed 13^th January 2015)

International Labour Office (1930), Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour (No. 29), Geneva: ILO.

International Labour Office (2013) Combating forced labour and trafficking in Africa. Available online at <http://www.ilo.org/addisababa/WCMS_229620/lang–en/index.htm> [Accessed 10^th January 2015]

International Labour Office (ILO) (2009), ‘The cost of coercion’: Report Of The Director-General – Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, International Labour Conference, 98th Session 2009, Geneva: ILO.

International Labour Office (ILO) (2012), General Survey on the Fundamental Conventions Concerning Rights at Work in light of the ILO Declaration on Social Justice for a Fair Globalization, 2008, Geneva: ILO.

Shamir, H. (2012), ‘A Labour Paradigm for Human Trafficking’, UCLA Law Review, 60:

1: 75-136.

5.0 Chapter Four: Author’s Module Reflection on the module

The globalisation of organisations and contextual or comparative management of human resource management practices comes with an added responsibility for human resource practitioners managing human resources from a comparative basis. This implies that international human resource managers can no longer over rely on adopting or transferring best practices or one-size fit all approaches which is primarily rooted in the universalist, convergence and ethnocentric approaches. This shows that management of human resources has become an integral international and global activity or exercise. It cannot be anticipated or presumed that what is effective and successful in one western world can be habitually transferred to non-western countries according to the Universalist, ethnocentric and convergence approaches. The implication of this is that international human resource managers have added responsibility of considering all contextual, sociocultural, economical, technological and political factors in order to effectively manage an international or a global workforce. The aim of this section is to provide a critical incident reflection on the module International Human Resource management, primarily focused on contemporary human resource issues such as management and development of global or international workforce, globalisation and comparative approaches to human resource management, global human right issues, performance management and appraisal of international assignees/appointees, global assignees’ reward and pay managements, organisational change management and son on. The topics and areas covered are very comprehensive.

With the burgeoning rate at which businesses are going global, the discipline of international HR has immensely prepared me towards my managerial role in managing people across borders and has fully equipped and enlightened me on cross-cultural issues in international human resource management through topics such as approaches to human resource management, globalisation, human rights and human resources taught in the class room and independent research conducted based on module exercise and assessment. Overtime, I have observed that as a result of the content and module delivery approaches, I have been able to Learn and relate with cross-cultural and national people where I have benefited from their background and cultural knowledge, their work experiences. Also, I have been able to participate in skills developmental activities such as workshops and seminars which I believe are transferable skills that will be beneficial to me in the future for my international human resource managerial future role.

Having attained a bit of personal and professional work experience in related field, the content of this module has enable me to communicate and relate effectively with people from other background being an individualistic and introvert personality. So far, it is glaring that I can now effectively negotiate and multi-task visibly noticed from my interaction with people and mode of work. In addition, the content of this module has enabled me to attain strategic international human resource management skills which will be transferable to my future managerial international human resource job role. I have gained more knowledge on human right issues, employee relations and employee engagements. I have also learnt how international recruitment and selection works in different countries, and very importantly resourcing, training, development and management of international assignees or appointees through a range of different developmental tools or methods. The module has also increased my understanding of how human resources operate in multinational firms, governmental and non-governmental companies, and operation of trade unions in different countries such as United States of America, Russia, Japan, China, and etcetera.

This module has been pivotal to my growth in knowledge and competence in general management issues prior to my future international human resource managerial role. This research-led module gave me insights to the importance of international human resource management, employment relations and contemporary issues in international human resource management and how they can be addressed. The module’s content was a combination of critical analysis, theoretical debates and practical applications of managing employees from an international perspective.

In sum, the content of this module will shape my future international human resource managerial through the following covered areas:

The content of the module revealed the prime importance of international human resource management, employment relations and contemporary issues in international human resource management and how they can be addressed.
The content provide equipped me with key approaches, methods, theories, concepts, models, policies and practices of effective management international human resource management
The content develop necessary required skills to enable me appraise complex and challenging areas of international human resource management
The content further develop my personal skills in effective presentation, communication, argumentation, problem solving skills, evaluation and critical analysis, effective teamwork skills, self-appraisal, creative thinking and autonomy in independent learning.

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A report on International Human Resource Management Practices and Processes

1.0 Executive Summary