Posted: May 12th, 2015

Christian and Secular Views on Eschatology: Path towards a Dialogue

Christian and Secular Views on Eschatology: Path towards a Dialogue

1.      Introduction

1.1 Background and Rationale

Recent discoveries resulting from studies of the universe’ present humanity with a cosmos that reveals the limited nature of human knowledge in terms of both time and space. Science has discovered a diverse universe that in itself reveals an enormous future awaiting humanity. The vastness plus all the discoveries made in the recent decades have challenged man into thinking of what there is in the afterlife and whether the universe in its greatness and vastness can ever come to an end (Eliade, 1974; p. 66). However, a look at the decayed activities going on within and outside the universe makes it clearly eminent that there will come a time when all that exists will decay away (Saudek, 2010, p. 133).

All the questions science has about the fate of the world lead to a single, but a very wide concept, that is, eschatology. According to Williamson (p. 7), the definition of the word eschatology in some dictionaries is a doctrine of the last or final things, especially death, judgment, heaven, and hell. A second definition says that eschatology is a branch of theology that deals with the aforementioned doctrines. Other different definitions exist, but what all the definitions have in common is that they all point to the events of the last days when the world is believed to come to an end. The definitions vary between religious views and scientific ones (Williamson, p. 7).

Today, eschatology is no longer a matter of religion only, it has found a new definition and meaning even among non-religious individuals. Scientific and secular eschatologists like Marxists all provide various versions of the different accounts of eschatology that appear in different societies. One would then ask why it makes sense to preoccupy ourselves with discussing eschatology, a question to which there is only one answer, that is, to bring forth cosmos out of chaos and order out of anarchy. Humans try to structure time into measurable units like seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and years to keep track of time and space and to avoid being lost. Time prevents us from being lost and through it, we are able to understand the events that happen and keep track of them (Gillman, 2007, p. 40).

According to Petraru (2006, p. 71), there are thinkers and individuals to whom God does not exist. It is because of these people that social and cultural promotions of the atheist, skeptic or agnostic visions were established and developed. Secular humanism, existentialism, consumerism, globalization, and Marxism have become true religions to many people today. Humanist Manifesto II (1973) has no regard for God or the existence of the supernatural, and if such things do exist, they are either meaningless or irrelevant to the question regarding survival and fulfillment of the human race (Petraru, 2006, p. 7). Regardless of such views, it is non-religious individuals’ belief in an imminent threat to the existence of human beings. Many people believe different things about how the world will come to an end, with some thinking about a nuclear holocaust, disease, or global warming as the cause for that end.

Scientists and secular individuals hold the belief of the end of time some days to come. Ten years ago, scientists had an assumption that gravity would eventually overtake the expanding universe, and the forces unleashed by the big bang, to cause the earth and universe to fall upon itself, causing a return to a point of singularity. If this happens, the stage for a new big bang may be set all over again (Gillman, 2007). The possibility of an after-life dates back to the pre-historic era (Bultman, 1967; n.p). The leaving of the physical body by the soul during trance, illness, or ecstasy in what is currently referred to as “near-death experience” originated with Shamanism. It was believed that the individual soul is immortal. Shamanistic idea of existence beyond death is part of several religions besides Persian, Muslim, Hebrew, Egyptian, Roman, and Greek (Walker, 2000, p. 6).

Taking a look at biblical eschatology, there are many books in the Bible that give an account of how it will take place. The Bible gives Christians hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ to take back the world. The angels promised of this event in Acts 1:9-11 after Jesus ascended to heaven. Additionally Jesus’ apostles proclaimed it in their writings, for example, in 1^st Th 4:16-18 (Copeland, p. 3). According to Copeland (p. 3), the Bible talks of a millennium rule, judgment, resurrections, second coming of Jesus, a new earth, and the new heaven. During the end of days, there will be the tribulation in which the anti-Christ will be allowed to rule the earth for seven years just before the Jesus’ millennium rule begins (Copeland, p. 3). There will also be the rapture in which the church will meet Jesus in the air and the dead will be raised from their graves. All the events will culminate in Jesus establishing his kingdom on earth, hence creating a new heaven and earth (Copeland, p. 3).

Saudek (2010) has observed that there is a lack of literature on the dialogue between scientific and religious views of eschatology, maybe, due to the existence of formidable epistemic barriers.

1.2. Research Problem and Objectives

At present, one of the barriers to creating a link between theology and science on the issues of eschatology is in the fundamental differences of approaching the end of the world that these two fields exercise. As pointed out by Russell (2012: 544), dedicated theologians see the end of the world in its complete resurrection by a radically new God’s act derived from the resurrection symbolizing continuity and discontinuity between the historical Jesus of Nazareth and the Risen Jesus. However, these views sharply contradict the recent scientific advances, especially those of cosmology that tend to believe that the end of the universe will highly depend on the density of the universe and the general shape of the universe. The cosmology theories about the end of the universe try to fix scientific explanations for the events that are expected to take place during the end of the world. There are five different theories that the cosmologists use to explain the events that will take place during the end of the universe. Some of these theories include the big freeze, the big rip, big crunch and false vacuum. The theories will be analysed in the literature section of this paper.

Numerous efforts to unify the Christian and secular approaches to eschatology have recently been undertaken, including the purely scientific approaches of Tipler (1988) and Dyson (1979). Tipler approached eschatology from the position of natural science, while Dyson (1979) envisioned it as a process of accumulating information. Both of these views are clearly in contradiction with the Christian believers’ perspective on the origin, process, and end of life. Such scientific developments thus create a contradictory trend of moving eschatology ahead through new scientific advancements, and at the same time creating tensions between the new non-religious approaches and the traditional, deeply held assumptions and beliefs on eschatology stemming from the Biblical analysis. This tension should be clearly understood for reconciling the two fields of human inquiry: theology and science.

Acknowledgement of the growing tension between science and theology coupled with the conflicting trends of the increasing interest in eschatology, the researcher has formulated the following research objectives

1. To identify theological beliefs and assumptions about eschatology.
2. To determine scientific beliefs and assumptions about eschatology.
3. To elicit differences and similarities between Christian and secular beliefs and assumptions of eschatology

2. Preliminary Literature Study

As viewed by Russell (2012: 543), eschatology is the apocalyptic event of distant future realized through the end of all things, the end of the material human world, the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, the Last Judgment, and other related events. Eschatology has obtained a high rate of popularity in the theological and scientific research, mainly because people are naturally prone to structuring – space, time, knowledge, etc. Seemingly, eschatology is not something that has resulted now, but has been in existence for a very time ago. Shamanism, for instance, promoted the belief in the immortality of the soul. Shaman was charged with the responsibility of reuniting the soul of an ailing individual with the physical body. Besides that, it accompanied the soul of dying people through separation at death through the descent into hell and on as it ascended to heaven. Shamanism has been in existence in the Greek societies since the Fourth century B.C.E., as Platonic and Pythagoras show in their works (Kelsey, 1982). The viewpoint of Shamanism about the afterlife is very similar to that of the Bible, with both holding beliefs of possible heaven or hell after death (Walker, 2000).

Theological Views of Eschatology

In theology, eschatology is defined as the study of the last things in relation to individual lives. Aside from this study dealing with the end of the world, it includes the return of the Messiah, judgment, the millenniums and also the existence of heaven and hell. Theology mainly deals with individual eschatology rather than the end of the universe as a whole. When studying individual eschatology, many believers study what happens to an individual between physical death and the resurrection day when they are judged and sent to hell or heaven. It is proclaimed in the Bible in the book of Hebrews (9:27) that man is set to die and later face judgment for their sins. According to the biblical version of eschatology, there are signs of end times are as a result of the conflicts between the people who are against the kingdom of God led by Satan and the ones who believe led by Jesus Christ. The predictions of eschatology can be found in two apocalyptic books of the Bible, namely, first Daniel and Revelations. The religious views of end times state that the physical death of an individual marks the beginning of their spiritual life as there is eternal life after death. The first to the nineteenth chapters of the book of revelations in the Bible mainly focus on the judgment that will take place during the end of the world. These four chapters basically maintain four major views; one is Preterism, meaning some of the prophecies have already occurred in the past; futurism, that most of the prophecies will come to pass in the future; idealism, that there is continuous fulfilment of the prophecies of the Bible in the current world and Historicism where the events of the historical times of Jesus Christ are being interpreted using current events (Bultman, 1957; n.d). The twentieth chapter of Revelations; however, focuses on pre-millennialism. Millennialism is a theological school of thought that believes that in a thousand years (Referred to as a thousand-year Sabbath) there will be a gradual expansion of evil in the world to signify the end-times. This will be characterized by the change in human behaviour and the gradual deterioration of the human society. According to this school of thought, the rapture of the earth will occur at the mid-point of the thousand years as God is expected to show his wrath to the human society for their sins. After a thousand years, Jesus Christ is expected to come back to save humankind. Amillennialism is also a popular eschatological school of thought in theology. The views of this school and those of the millennialism school of thought are very similar but Amillennialists do not believe that the thousand years are literal.

According to the biblical eschatological views, there are certain things that will take place during the apocalypse to signify the return of Christ. In the book of Thessalonians, it is stated that the righteous will rise from the dead to receive Christ. It is also prophesied that false Christs and false prophets will come to deceive the human beings before the real messiah comes to life.

The Scientific View of Eschatology

The scientists do not base their theories of the end of the world on prophecies and beliefs, but on scientific evidence of the changes that are taking place in the current universe (Benz, 2000; p.196). Scientists believe that everything that happens must be backed up with scientific evidence for it to be true. There are a number of theories that have been used to try to explain how the universe will come to an end. Most of the theories so far explain the end of the universe in relation to a dark force that is believed to be in existence in the universe and the density of matter in the universe. The theories mainly end up insinuating that all matter will be destroyed when the universe comes to an end. The following are examples of the scientific theories that try to explain the end of the world.

1. The big Freeze

Under this theory, the scientists believe that there is a dark magic that maintains the constant expansion of the universe. This theory adds that this expansion is asymptotically pushing the world to a temperature of absolute zero where it will be impossible for any living thing to exist this all life will be ended (Weinberg and Dicke, 1973; p. 598).

1. The Big Rip

This theory also includes the dark energy that is believed to be increasing its density with time. Scientists believe that this increasing density also increases acceleration of all the particles of the universe and when this acceleration increases to a certain constant, all particles in the universe, no matter how small or how huge will be disintegrated into very small pieces (Weinberg and Dicke, 1973; p. 598).

• The Big Crunch

The hypothesis of the big crunch is a mirror of the view of the big bang theory. According to this theory, if the universe has enough energy to expand, then it can also contract to a dimensionless singularity (Weinberg and Dicke, 1973; p. 599).

1. False Vacuum

Another scientific theory believes that the universe will tunnel into a lower energy state similar to a vacuum. This new state of energy is expected to affect the universe and the most fundamental physical constants that will lead to an effect on energy and matter. It is possible that this effect will cause the destruction of all structures instantaneously (Weinberg and Dicke, 1973; p. 599).

Similarities between the Scientific and the Biblical Theories of Eschatology

There are some marked similarities between certain secular views of eschatology and theologian views of eschatology. For instance, one secular eschatological belief maintains that big bang theory is likely to happen again, setting the process of formation of the earth and the beginning of humanity into motion all over again. The theory, suggested by Schwarz (1996) postulates that the forces unleashed by the big bang theory will cause the universe to fall back upon itself, ending with the “big crunch” and a return to some point of singularity. When this happens, the stage for a second big bang will be set and the formation of a new world will begin all over again (Schwarz, 1996). The views in the aforementioned statements are similar to what is expected to happen in the biblical eschatology. In the Bible, it is clear that Jesus will come back to establish his Kingdom on earth, but before doing that, there will be some form of “chaos” that will culminate into a new life. It is predicted in the Bible that there will be a rapture which is almost similar to what is predicted during the scientific end of the world. A new life will begin again and this time, it will never end (Bragg, n.d). The scientists predict that after being destroyed, the universe will be created again after a second big bang. This is also similar to the biblical view of eschatology that believes that there will be another world created for the righteous after the first has been destroyed by God. After all Shamanism had already proposed in the previous studies that the soul is immortal and cannot die. For this reason, some scholars assume that it is the living souls that will take on new bodies and continue with their existence in the new world that will be created after the second big bang, like it was predicted in the biblical theory of eschatology.

Differences between the Biblical and Scientific Theories of Eschatology

There are striking differences between the scientific and the biblical concepts of eschatology. The following are some of the differences that have been mentioned by theological scholars in past studies. First, in Schwarz’s scientific imagination of eschatology, the new earth will take billions of years to form just like the current earth took billions of years to be formed into what it is today (Benz, 2000; p.260). The big bang theory will have to take place again in the similar fashion it did almost a billion years ago. On the other hand, the biblical version of eschatology states that eschatology will only take a maximum of a millennium for the eternal kingdom to be created. According to the biblical beliefs, rapture, tribulation, the reign of Satan and the anti-Christ will be the main causes of the difficult moments for human beings, which will force them to choose between Christ and the Devil (Russell, 2012; p. 547). However, unlike in the reoccurrence of the theory of the Big Bang, people will be preserved in the biblical eschatology. All the dead will be raised and preserved in purgatory where they will be tested and given a second chance in the hands of Satan to choose Jesus. Afterwards, those who excel in being faithful to Jesus Christ will be taken to heaven while those that fail will burn in hell for eternity (Russell, 2012; p. 549). In many of the scientific versions of eschatology, the death of all humans is predicted through a nuclear holocaust, global warming, and spread of a calamity, but nothing is mentioned about the preservation of humanity. There is simply no life after the occurrence of the end of time as opposed to biblical eschatology that offers hope for the righteous and hell for the sinners (Russell, 2012; p. 556).

The biblical eschatological views mention the coming of Christ to save the believers from the calamities that will be taking place during the end-times. According to the predictions of revelations, people will be offered a second chance in purgatory to choose between Christ and Satan. However, in the scientific views, there is no mention of any living thing being spared from the destruction that will take place when the universe comes to an end. According to the scientific theories of eschatology, all matter that can sustain the existence of a living being will be destroyed and therefore it will be impossible for any living being to survive

Natural science looks at the vastness of the universe and from it, suggests that human life is only a small part of it that does not matter to it so much. The science proceeds to state that the universe holds no promises for life. That is because thermodynamics predict the certainty of decay of material substrates that support life and consciousness. This understanding further offers no life after the end of the universe, unlike the promises made in the Bible. It is also understandable that life can come to an end without the universe ending, that is, only the material substrate on which life depends on can decay without the universe ending. Just like a nuclear holocaust can lead to the end of humanity and life on earth and probably in the whole universe without ending the universe itself. Therefore, here, end times define the end of life and not end of the universe. The same belief is held in the Bible, where all humans will be raised and judged to end up in hell or heaven, while the universe continues to exist, although in a new form (Saudek, 2010).

From this chapter, it is clear that the biblical and the scientific views of end-times share some similarities and some differences. This chapter tries to look at some of the views that scholars have been able to come up with in the past and compare the theological and scientific views. The following chapters will try to use a theoretical research methodology to try and analyse some of the views of eschatology as stated by secular and Christian thinkers.

3. Research Design and Methodology

3.1. Research Design

Since the planned dissertation is dedicated to the topic of eschatology as approached by secular and Christian researchers and thinkers, the theoretical research design was selected for conducting this study. Moreover, the study’s research design utilizes the comparative study model of the research process (Smith 2008: 159). Therefore, finding the solution to the main research problem identified above will require the researcher to undertake three research steps. The first step will deal with describing the set of secular views related to eschatology, based on the common palaeontological and archaeological findings, the advances of the modern science, studies of space and the inner structure of the Earth, among others. The second phase of research laid out in a separate chapter will involve studying Christian views on eschatology laid out in the Bible and other religious writings. The final step of the dissertation will represent a comparative chapter bringing together the evidence from both secular and religious sources to identify the fields of congruence and incongruence between the two schools, and to delineate the ways in which these contradictions can be resolved to achieve a more or less comprehensive idea about the end of the world.

3.2. Research Methodology

As stated by Smith (2008: 158), a research methodology is a proven algorithm and method of solving certain formulated problems, and it serves as one of the tools in a toolbox fitting a particular issue. Each methodology is a tool specifically designed for solving a particular task, so selecting an appropriate methodology refers to having a clear idea of the nature of the problem and pathways of its exploration. The research methodology selected for the use in the upcoming thesis was selected from a list of conceptual argumentation methodologies, taking into account that its research design is purely theoretical (Smith 2008: 159).

The upcoming research will be conducted with the use of the comparative and complementary research methodologies. The comparative methodology is used for comparing different views and analysis of their similarities and differences. Therefore, it will be applied in chapters 2, 3, and 4 to present, compare, and contrast the views of Christian and secular research on the issue of eschatology. At the same time, one of the research sub-problems requires a complementary research methodology used to harmonize different theories and views to mould them into a coherent set of views and beliefs. This methodology will be used in chapters 3 to seek ways of compliance between secular and Christian views on eschatology.

The presently selected research methodologies both require the use of only literary sources, so the planned thesis will be based solely on secondary data sources. It will utilize a wide range of influential secular and Christian research publications such as books, periodicals, authoritative Internet resources, the Bible, for example. The work will use a variety of past and present scholarly works to create a clear idea of both secular and Christian views, their differences and similarities, and paths for congruence.

4.      Discussion

The previous chapter explains the methodology that was used to research the differences and the similarities shared by the Christian and secular views of the end of the world. The following chapter is an analysis of the findings of the research.

When reading different views of the end of the world, it is clear that humans have been trying to make sense out of the existence of the world almost as long as they have existed. During the last few centuries, there have been a lot of theories suggesting the end of the world, some of them being religious and others being scientific. There are some notable characteristics that can be pointed out in most of the scientific cosmologies such as the fact that most of them are based on the tools of mathematical physics that help to explain the manner in which all matter will cease to exist (Newton, 1982; p 20-36). Since there have been new theories invented as the time goes by, it may be important to find out how new cosmologies replace the older ones and whether the newer theories are interpretations of the older theories.

From the research, it is noted that there is a very wide variety of Christian beliefs and attitudes towards the end of life (Raymond, 1998; p. 12). There are differences in views in different churches such as the Roman Catholic and the protestant churches. Many Christians have a negative attitude towards scientific views of cosmology. However, one common factor among Christian cosmologies is that they do not explain the end of the world based on any other evidence aside from the beliefs they have from reading the Biblical predictions (Russell, 2012; p. 562).

Some of the main differences that have been noted between the scientific and the theological views have been mentioned below. Firstly, the Christians (and other monotheists) believe that the world is only in existence because of a supernatural force that is keeping it together (Gillman, 2007; p.27). This supernatural force is believed to be the power of God. On the other hand, the scientists such as Newton (1982; p.26) believe that the universe id held together by very well skilled geometrics and mechanics. The Bible views the beginning of the world as God’s creation, but the scientists have the big bang theory to explain the beginning of the universe (Gillman, 2007; p.29). The religious theory of the beginning of the world is represented in the book of Genesis where the creation of all matter is believed to be done by God.

However, both the believers and non-believers view the universe a finitely old. According to Aquinas (1997; n.p), God exists and he is the creator. The very concept of a supreme being creating the world means that it is finitely old. The scientists also share this belief of the world as they have a theory about the beginning and the end of the universe. There are several cosmological scholars who have tried to make the connection between the theist and the scientific beliefs of end times stating that the scientific views are just confirmations of the beliefs of the theists. Some philosophers, such as Gillman, (2007) argue that the scientific explanations of the beginning and the end of the universe just try to give explanations to what the theists believe. However, these views have been highly criticized because there are some miraculous events in the Bible that cannot be explained using scientific views. For example, there are no scientific theories that can be used to explain the miraculous events of the Bible such as when Jesus walked on water or changed water to wine. If the view that there is a scientific connection in all the miraculous events of the Bible were true, then there would be a chemistry process of turning water into wine.

From this analysis, one can verify that there is still a big gap that separates the theist and scientific beliefs of end times. Although the two have some similarities, there are still too many inconsistencies that make them different (Gillman, 2007; p.36). This is the reason why scholars have not yet been able to find and verify the connection between the two lines of beliefs. In conclusion, it is hard to change the beliefs of an atheist or a theist because all of them have either scientific or biblical material that they consider as evidence for their eschatological beliefs. For this reason, it is possible that the two divisions in line of thought when it comes to eschatology will exist forever.

5. Structure of the Dissertation

The planned thesis will consist of five chapters. The proposed structure of the dissertation combined with the approximate timeframes for each chapter is as follows:

1. Introduction. The introductory chapter of the dissertation will present the research problem and background, will formulate research questions and objectives, and will underline the study’s significance for the modern theology. It will also contain relevant research terminology and the study’s implications for this field of study.
2. Literature review. The present chapter will provide a firm starting foundation for the dissertation’s arguments by means of providing a thorough analysis of research studies already published on the subject of interest.
3. Secular views on eschatology. The present chapter will present systematized data about the complex of sciences working in the field of eschatology, and their findings and predictions regarding the approximate time and the nature of the end of the world.
4. Christian views on eschatology. This chapter will present, in an organized manner, the complexity of studies and beliefs about eschatology from the biblical viewpoint of Christian theology. This chapter will be based on the analysis of the scriptural evidence, Christian scholarly writings, and theological research.
5. Comparison of differences between secular and Christian views on eschatology. Findings from chapters 2 and 3 will be analysed in a synthetic manner to identify the implications of both fields’ findings on the subject, and to discover ways in which they can begin the journey towards dialogue.
6. Conclusion. This final chapter will summarize findings and bring the whole work to a concise ending. It will delineate the study’s limitations, implications for theology, and recommendations for further research.
7. Timeframe of Completion

The timeframe scheduling the completion of various parts of the planned thesis is presented in the Gantt chart below:

 

 

	May 15	Jun 15	Oct 15	Feb 19	Sept 16	Nov 16
Writing chapter 1
Writing chapter 2
Writing chapter 3
Writing chapter 4
Writing chapter 5
Editing, proofreading, and presenting the thesis

 

 

References

Aquinas T 1997. Basic Writings of St. Thomas Aquinas (Vol. 1). Hackett Publishing.

Benz A 2000. The future of the universe. London: Continuum.

Bragg, C. n.d. SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY ESCHATOLOGY STUDY OF PROPHECY accessed 7/3/15 from http://www.trinitycollege.edu/assets/files/ECBragg/ProphecyR.pdf

Bultmann R K 1957. History and eschatology.

Dembski W A 2002. Intelligent design: The bridge between science & theology. InterVarsity Press.

Dyson FJ 1979. Time without end: Physics and biology in an open universe. Reviews of Modern Physics 51(3): 447-460.

Eliade M 1974. Death, Afterlife, and Eschatology: A Thematic Source Book of the History of Religions. Harper & Row.

Ellis GFR 2002. Natures of existence (temporal and eternal). In Ellis, GFR (ed), The far future universe: Eschatology from a cosmic perspective (pp. 316-351). Radnor: Templeton Foundation Press.

Ferreira J 2003. Cosmological and Biblical Eschatologies: Consonance or Dissonance? Evangelical Review of Theology 27(4): 306-317.

Gasperini M & Veneziano G 1993. Pre-big-bang in string cosmology. Astroparticle Physics, 1(3), 317-339.

Gillman N 2004. How will it all end? Eschatology in science and religion. Crosscurrents (Spring 2007): 38-50.

Gillman N 2007. “How will it all end?: Eschatology in science and religion.” Cross currents 57.1 :38-50.

Hood RE 1990. Must God remain Greek? Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Huntington SP 1996. The clash of civilizations and the remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Jakobsen JR and Pellegrini A 2000. World Secularisms at the Millennium. Social Text 64, 18(3). Online article: http://www.msm.nl/EBSCOhost/academicsearchelite/secularism, 2008-10-22.

James W 2009. The varieties of religious experience. Middlesex: The Echo Library.

Je’ Adayibe GD 2001. Where your treasure is: a consideration of Jesus’ teaching on possessions. Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 20(1), 44-45.

Jenkins P 2007. The next Christendom: the coming of global Christianity. Oxford, USA: Oxford University Press.

Kapita MS 1977. Traditional Zambian eschatology and ethics confronting the advent of Christianity. A doctoral dissertation presented at the Faculty of the University of Innsbruck (Germany), March 31, 1977.

Kasali DM 1998. African realities: revisioning theological education in Africa in the 21 st Century. Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 17(1), 14- 22.

Kauffman JH 1989 (winter). Dilemmas of Christian pacifism within a historic peace Church. Sociological Analysis 49(4).

Keller T 2008. The reason for God: belief in an age of skepticism. New York: Dutton, Penguin Group Inc.

Klingbeil G 2000. Looking at the end from the beginning: studying eschatological concepts in the Pentateuch. Journal of the Adventist Theological Society, 11(1-2).

Klinghoffer, D 2005 (Jan). That other Church. Christianity Today 49(1).

Knitter PF 1985 [1995]. No other name? A critical survey of Christian attitudes toward the world religions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.

Komakoma, J 2003. The social teaching of the Catholic bishops and other Christian leaders in Zambia: major pastoral letters and statements 1953-2001. Ndola: Mission Press.

Komonchak J Collins M and Lane DA (eds.) 1987. The New Dictionary of Theology. Dublin, Ireland: Gill and Macmillan Ltd.

Kraemer H 1956. Religion and the Christian faith. London: Lutterworth Press.

Krans J, Peerbolte BJL, Smit PB & Zwiep A 2013. Paul, John, and Apocalyptic Eschatology. Danvers: BRILL.

Kummel WG 1961. Promise and fulfilment: the eschatological message of Jesus (3e. Transl. Barton, DM). London: SCM.

Kunhiyop SW 2001. Poverty: good news for Africa. Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 20(1), 4- 14.

Kurtz P 1994. Living without religion. New York: Prometheus.

Ladd GE 1959. Gospel of the Kingdom: scriptural Studies in the Kingdom of God. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.

Lehmann RP 2000. The Second coming of Jesus. In Dederen, R (ed), Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology: commentary reference series Vol. 12. Hagerstown: Review and Herald Pub. Assn.

Livingston JC 1971. Modern Christian thought: from the enlightenment to Vatican II. New York: MacMillan Pub Co., Inc.

Lohse E 1978. Chilioi. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (TDNT Vol. 9). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.

MacArthur J 1993. Charismatic Chaos. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan.   224. Macquarrie, J 1996. Mediators between human and divine: from Moses to Muhammad. New York: Continuum.

Margolin R 2008. The implicit secularism of Martin Buber’s thought. Israel Studies 13(4). Online Journal: http://www.EBSCOhost/academicsearchelite/secularism, 2009-12-27.

Martin D 1965. Towards eliminating the concept of secularization. In Gould, J (ed). Penguin survey of the social sciences. Harmondsworth (UK): Penguin Books.

Martin D 1991. The secularization issue: prospect and retrospect. British Journal of Sociology 42: 465- 74. Online Journal: http://www.jstor.org, 2009-12- 17.

Martin W 2003 (rev). The Kingdom of the Cults. Minnesota: Bethany House.

Marty ME 2005. When faiths collide. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Mascall EL 1965. The secularization of Christianity: an analysis and a critique. London: Darton, Longman and Todd.

Mbaku JM 2007. Corruption in Africa: causes, consequences, and cleanups. Plymouth, UK: Rowman and Littlefield Pub., Inc.

Mbillah JA 2004. Interfaith relations and the quest for peace in Africa. In Mugambi, JNK and Kuschner-Pelkmann, F (eds.). Church-State relations: a challenge for African Christianity. Nairobi, Kenya; Action Pub.

Mbiti J S 1971. New Testament Eschatology in an African Background: a study of the encounter between New Testament theology and African traditional concepts. Oxford University Press.

Mbiti J S 1971. New Testament Eschatology in an African Background: a study of the encounter between New Testament theology and African traditional concepts. Oxford University Press.

McGlasson PG 2006. Invitation to Dogmatic Theology: a canonical approach. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.

McGrath A 2004. Dawkins’ God: Genes, Memes, and the Meaning of Life. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishing.

McGrath A and McGrath JC 2007. Dawkins Delusions? Atheist fundamentalism and the denial of the Divine. London: SPCK.

McKim DK 1996. Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press.

McKim R 2001. Religious ambiguity and Religious Diversity. Oxford: Oxford Press.

Mcleod H 2000. Secularization. In Hastings, A et al (eds.). The Oxford companion of Christian Thought . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

McManners J 1969. The French revolution and the Church. New York: Harper and Row.

Metzger PL 2007. Consuming Jesus: beyond race and class divisions in a consumer Church. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.

Mickelsen AB 1963. Interpreting the Bible. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm B Eerdmans.

Milbank J 1990. The end of dialogue. In D’Costa, G (ed.). Christian uniqueness reconsidered: the myth of a pluralistic theology of religions: Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.

Moltmann J 2004. The coming of God: Christian eschatology. Fortress Press.

Morgan R 1997. Rudolf Bultmann. In Ford, DF (ed.). The modern theologians: an introduction to Christian theology in the Twentieth Century (2ed.). Massachusetts: Blackwell Pub.

Morris H M 1974. Scientific creationism. New Leaf Publishing Group.

Nagel T 1972 (Winter). War and massacre. Philosophy and public affairs 1(2). Online article: http://www.jstor.org, 2009-11-22.

Nash RH 1994. Is Jesus the only Saviour? Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan.

Newton R G 1982. Scattering theory of waves and particles. Courier Corporation.

Nielsen K 2001. Naturalism and religion. New York: Prometheus.

Nietzsche F 1974 [1882]. The Gay science: with a prelude in rhymes and an appendix of songs (transl., Walter Kaufmann). New York: Random House.

Norris P and Inglehart R 2004. Sacred and secular: religion and politics worldwide. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Onfray M 2007. Atheist manifesto: the case against Christianity, Judaism, and Islam (Reprint Ed.). New York: Arcade Publishing.

Ongong’a JJ 2003. Towards an environmental theology. In Getui, MN and Obeng EA (eds.). Theology of reconstruction: exploratory essays (2ed.). Nairobi, Kenya: Action Pub.

Orobotar AE 2008. Theology brewed in an African pot. Nairobi: Pauline Pub.

Packer JI 1993. Concise theology. Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House.

Pannenberg W 1989. Christianity in a Secularized World. New York: Crossroad.

Perry TS 2001. Radical difference; a defence of Hendrik Kraemer’s theology of religions. Waterloo, Ontario; Wilfrid Laurier University Press. Online Book:

Petraru G 2006. “ORTHODOX ESCHATOLOGY VERSUS SECULAR AND SECTARIAN-DENOMINATIONAL ESCHATOLOGISM.” European Journal of Science and Theology 2.1:67-77.

Philosophy of Religion. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.

Polkinghorne J & Welker M 2000. The end of the world and the ends of God: Science and theology on eschatology (Theology of the twenty-first century). Harrisburg: Trinity Press International.

Polkinghorne J C 1996. Scientists as theologians: A comparison of the writings of Ian Barbour, Arthur Peacocke and John Polkinghorne. Society for Promoting Christian.

Pope Benedict the XVI: Atheism, secularism responsible for environmental destruction. Online article: http://www. about.com,

Presence of the future: the eschatology of Biblical Realism. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.

Pretorius M 2007. Shaping eschatology within science and theology. Verbum et Ecclesia JRG 28(1): 191-206.

Ratzinger J 1988. Eschatology: Death and eternal life. Regensburg: Friedrich Pustet Verlag.

Religion and Globalisation. European Judaism 36(1), 4-10, 7. Online article: http://www.msm.nl/EBSCOhost/academicsearchelite/secularism, 2008-08-21.

Reymond R 1998. A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith: -Revised and Updated. Thomas Nelson Inc.

Robinson BA 2014. Christian belief systems: Competing theories of eschatology, end times, and millennialism. Online article. http://www.religioustolerance.org/millenni.htm, 2014-09-23.

Russell RJ 2012. Eschatology in science and theology. In Stump, JB & Padgett, AG (eds), The Blackwell companion to science and Christianity (pp. 543-565). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

Saudek D 2011. Science and Eschatology in the Open Universe. Science & Christian Belief 23(2): 133-157.

Saudek, D. A. N. I. E. L. “Science and eschatology in the open universe.” Science and Christian Belief (2010).

Schwartz H 2000. Eschatology. Cambridge: Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing.

Schwarz H A N S 1996. Modern Scientific Theories of the Future and Christian Eschatology. Word and World, 16, 473-481.

Secularism, American style. Society 44(6), 160-163, 4. Online article: http://www.msm.nl/EBSCOhost/academicsearchelite/secularism, 2008-05-19.

Secularization falsified. First Things: Journal of Religion and Public Life, Issue 180. Online article: http://www.msm.nl/EBSCOhost/academicsearchelite/secularism, 2008-05-19.

Smith KG 2008. Academic writing and theological research: A guide for students. Johannesburg: South African Theological Seminary Press.

Tipler FJ 1988. The Omega point theory: A model of an evolving god. In Russell, RJ, Stoeger, WR & Coyne, GV (eds), Physics philosophy and theology: A common quest for understanding (pp. 313-331). Vatican State: Vatican Observatory.

Walker G C 2000. Secular eschatology: Beliefs about afterlife. OMEGA-DETROIT THEN NEW YORK-, 41(1), 5-22.

Weinberg, S., & Dicke, R. H. (1973). Gravitation and cosmology: principles and applications of the general theory of relativity. American Journal of Physics, 41(4), 598-599.

Wilkinson D 2010. Christian eschatology and the physical universe. New York: A&C Black.

Williamson G I n.d. A Study of Biblical Eschatology. Accessed on 7/3/15 from http://www.trinitycollege.edu/assets/files/ECBragg/ProphecyR.pdf