Posted: January 8th, 2015

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

Part 2: Qualitative Methods

Qualitative Data Collection Methods
There are a large number of qualitative data sources that researchers can use, as well as a variety of methods to collect these data. Qualitative data sources include,

but are certainly not limited to, observations, field notes, interviews, focus groups, images, documents.
Despite the wide variety of qualitative data sources available, a researcher must carefully consider which of these will best allow them to respond to their research

question. This decision should involve balancing the utility of each data source (e.g., its strengths, what insights it yields), the limitations of each data source

(e.g., its limitations), how the data sources could be expected to work together (e.g., how they might complement each other or whether they might be redundant) and

pragmatics (e.g., resource constraints). It should not be a fact-finding expedition, in which every possible data source is explored without focus or justification.
Instead, in qualitative research participants, sites and data sources are purposefully selected to help the researcher best understand the problem. The following, in

particular, should be considered when deciding upon data collection procedures:
•    Setting the boundaries for the study;
•    Collecting information;
•    Establishing protocols;
•    Time in the setting;
•    Multiple, triangulating forms of data; and
•    Making decisions between and about data sources
The following questions should also be considered:
•    What forms of data do I need to collect?
•    Why are we collecting this data?
•    What exactly are we collecting?
•    Where are we going to collect data and for how long?
•    When are we going to collect data and for how long?
•    Who is going to collect the data?
•    How will the data be collected and displayed?
This week we will look at different methods of data collection in depth to help you understand how and on what basis these decisions are made.

Part 2: Qualitative Methods

Qualitative Data: Observation
Observation is used to observe the activities, people and physical aspects of a situation. This form of data collection allows for data to be collected through the

researcher having direct contact in the setting. There are two primary types of observation: participant, in which the researcher is active in the situation as a

teacher, student or known observer; or, non-participant, in which the research remains ‘outside’ the observation (e.g., video recording). Observation carries both

advantages and limitations as a methods of data collection.
Advantages:
•    Researcher has first hand experience with the participants
•    Researcher can record information as it is revealed
•    Unusual aspects can be noticed during observation
•    Useful in exploring topics that may be uncomfortable for participants to discuss
•    Provides contextual/facility information
Limitations
•    Researcher may be seen as obtrusive, whereby a sense of being observed may have an influence of participants’ behaviours
•    Can be difficult to capture everything (need for a carefully defined focus)
•    What is recorded can be subjective (e.g., noting confirming evidence and dismissing disconfirming evidence)
•    Cognitive processing (e.g., motivations, attitudes) cannot be observed
Slack and Rowley (2001) further indicate that the observer must consider in advance questions of what, why, how and when observe.
•    What, specifically, is to be observed? This requires consideration of the research aims and question(s).
•    Why observation? This requires bearing in mind what research question is being investigated and what observation is expected to contribute to that answer.
•    How will you observe? Will you be a participant or non-participant? Will the observation be overt or covert? What activities and situations are to be observed

and what forms of observation best suit that?
•    When will you observe? What activities and situations are to be observed and when are these most likely to occur?
For further reading on observation as a method of data collection, see:
Slack, F., & Rowley, J. (2001). Observation: Perspectives on research methodologies for leisure managers. Management Research News, 24(1/2), 35-42.
Field notes
Field notes of observations can include records of conversations, details or setting and investigator’s impressions/observations. They are usually written up during

observation and/or as soon as possible after the event. The notes should concentrate on who / what / where / when / how / why questions. The more detailed they are at

the time, the more valuable they will be in later analysis. We do forget what went on, even if it was very interesting at the time!

Part 2: Qualitative Methods

Qualitative Data: Images
The use of photos as a qualitative data source is believed to have originated with Collier (1957), who used images to documents his participants’ houses to investigate

environmental factors influencing psychological stress. Images are now quite common as a form of data collection in qualitative research. They can take a wide range of

forms, including:
•    Construction of maps (classrooms, school);
•    Video footage;
•    Still images;
•    Existing film;
•    Images to add to observation data; and
•    Photographs and video footage can serve as an important source of observation data.
Rather than simply interrogating the visual image, a number of questions need to be asked as part of this analysis (e.g. Who took the image? Under what conditions was

the image captured?  Why was the image captured? What kind of relationship existed between the photographer and the subject/s?) Consider these questions for the

following image (published by Schwartz, 2001):

As with all data forms, there are advantages and limitations to images as a form of data.
Advantages:
•    Visual sources can be rich data sources that contribute to our understanding
•    They can be taken away by the researcher for detailed analysis and reflection
•    They can add to the reporting of data, contributing to the thick description
Limitations:
•    Bias is evident in what is captured, and also what is not within the image
•    Out of context, interpretation of the image could be misconstrued
•    Ethical considerations can be tricky (e.g., what happens with the photo after it is taken, requirement of informed consent, publication issues)
For an interesting use of photographs as part of an ethnographic study, see:
Schwartz, D. Visual ethnography: Using photography in qualitative research. Qualitative Sociology, 12(2), 119-154.

Part 2: Qualitative Methods

Qualitative Data: Interviews
Sitting, asking and listening are as much an attitude as a method.  Sitting implies a lack of hurry, patience and humility; asking implies that the outsider is the

student and listening implies respect and learning.  Many of the best insights come this way (Chambers, 1983).
Interviews, which emphasise each of those aforementioned qualities, aim to understand an event through the perspective of the interviewee.  The interview is a common

method of data collection used in both qualitative studies (and even in some cases quantitative studies). They can be conducted with an individual or group and, whilst

they usually occur face to face, can be conducted by email or telephone.

There are different types of interviews:
Structured interviews. These are pre-planned (usually closed) questions.  All participants are asked the same questions in the same order and (as much as possible) in

the same way because the interviewer adheres to a script.  The interviewer is neutral and aims for a balanced rapport with participants. Strengths of structured

interviews include: uniformity of responses (which is an advantage and a limitation), whilst limitations include: limited subjectivity and emotion and it inhibits

exploration of certain perspectives.

Unstructured interviews. These are open-ended and usually associated with ethnography. Such an interview aims to understand rather than explain phenomena.  There is

little planning of questions and generally topics are pursued rather than specific intentions or questions explored.  The interviewer is involved, subjective and

responsive to the participants.  The strength of the unstructured approach is that the interviewee leads the path of discussion and multiple perspectives can be

explored.  It is limited as a data collection method as it is easy to digress from the topic, it is time consuming and yields large data sets that are difficult to

analyse.

Semi-structured interviews. These take the middle path, where there is some planning of the types of questions to be asked. As with unstructured, it aims to understand

rather than explain and the interviewer is involved and subjective. It is like structured in that there is a direction to be followed (albeit in a less direct

fashion). Strengths are that there is room to explore interesting elements of the interview within the confines of the plan. The approach is limited by the

preconceived ideas of the interviewer, large quantities of data, as well as the complexity of identifying the aim and design of an interview.  Researchers using a

semi-structured approach to interviewing are encouraged to imagine the sorts of answers they will get from their questions, to practice them on family and friends and

to analyse the language choices you have made.

Conducting interviews
There are a number of elements to consider when conducting interviews:
•    Obtain consent for the interview and permission to record it;
•    Ensure confidentiality;
•    Ask one question at a time and listen carefully to the answer;
•    Provide transition between topics;
•    Consider your body language and how it impacts the interview;
•    Stay focused on your aim, keep to the time.
Watch the following clip and evaluate the quality of the interview on these grounds (we will give them a pass on informed consent and confidentiality, given that the

aim of this interview was not research-related):

For further reading on effective interviewing for research, see:
Seidman, I. (2005). Interviewing as qualitative research: Guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. Teachers College Press.

Part 2: Qualitative Methods

Qualitative Data: Document analysis
Data collected as documents are the written artefacts related to the study. In educational research, these can include: teacher programs, student work samples,

reflective journals and curriculum documents, to name a few. These documents fulfill a range of purposes, namely: triangulation of data; to gather a range of

perspectives; to provide evidence of connections between teaching and learning; and/or to give insight into the professional identity of the teacher.

In considering which data to collect and how to collect it, a researcher carefully considers the purpose and intent of the research (as they should do with all data

sources). By listing the research questions and identifying which data answers which question, the researcher can determine whether the ‘right’ data are being

collected. Below is an example from research into literacy Professional Development. On the left are the contributing questions from the study, while on the right are

the data collection methods employed to respond to each question.

How has writing been taught within Early Stage One and Stage One classrooms over the past ten years at the inquiry school?
•    Ethnographic study of the school
•    teacher reflection
•    interview key personnel within the system
•    document analysis
What structures, activities, processes and people partnerships can be identified within the professional development experiences of Early Stage One and Stage One

Teachers?    •    Interview teachers to identify previous professional development experiences
•    Document analysis of any information available on these experiences
•    Classroom observations
•    Focus group discussions
What is the nature of the relationship
between these professional development
experiences and the professional growth of teachers in the teaching of writing?     •    Classroom observations
•    Focus group discussions
•    Teacher reflective journals
•    Classroom observations
•    Teacher interviews
•    Reflective journal entries
•    Analysis of student writing samples
*Comparison/contrast of each of these data sources
For further reading on this topic, see:
Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27.

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