Posted: July 8th, 2015

The role of non-evidence based beliefs on anti-vaccination-Literature Review

Introduction

Anti-vaccination proponents have largely embedded their energies in promoting doubt in parents, instructing forms of biomedical fear while capitalizing on their spiritual and paranormal belief naivety to enforce the same. These approaches are ensured to make it possible that even with any increase in people’s knowledge and evidence, their rational strength over anti-vaccine movements become a myriad.[Lewandowsky et al. 2013] Decision making becomes a weak thing to do because by looking at both ends, things seem to parallel each other. There those who believe in an unquestionable trust in political figures, doctors and other medical professionals. Other parents seem to look at homeopathy, nature and metaphysical tendencies to resolve their medical dilemma as regards to the vaccine.[Huntley and Peeters, 2010; Battles, 2008]. It is at this point that Lewandowski et al. [2013] and his believed that with an increase in knowledge the worldview polarization of science also doubled. Apparently, these issues are evident to point out to the fact that anti-vaccine attitudes are predicted by them. But there is very limited research in place, to depict the underlying factor beneath these forms of psychosocial behaviors against vaccines.

The notion of worldview approach to anti-vaccine over vaccines is a current one and stems from paranormal, spiritual, and conspiracy beliefs over the vaccines. These non-evidence ways of life seem to reach out to the attitudes parents depict over vaccines for such a long time.[Jolley and Douglas, 2014; Goertzel, 1994] There those, who see that vaccines are unsafe, impure according to God’s purpose of creation [O’shea, 2001] and even with governments like the Australian taking the Slovakian approach [Kasarda ,2013; Behrmann2010 ], misinformation [Kata,2010] still affects parents decision making over vaccines[Jolley and Douglas, 2014]. It remains to be seen what extent these non-evidence based beliefs may affect the worldview perspective over anti-vaccination.

There at least four beliefs that individuals who fight the anti-vaccination war ascribe to and believe. The general worldview over vaccines is shaped by people’s perception and philosophies in homeopathy,(Battles, 2008) belief in spiritualism, conspiracy theory effects and the total ascription to paranormal belief. In any direction that the current war might be heading to, the internet has been the forefront communication platform over which these beliefs are spread (Kasarda 2013; Jolley and Douglas, Kata 2010). People’s perceptions over vaccines have been influenced by this Pandora that decision-making becomes underpinned to what information is gained from the internet by parents over the safety of their children (Kata 2010). Yet in all their sentiments on anti-vaccination websites, they pose to realize that vaccines are necessary to the safety of their generations. It becomes apparent that the worldwide view on vaccines is based on non-evidential beliefs which if assessed keenly the confidence gap in vaccines can be reduced considerably.

Theme-1.Anti-vaccination and its prevalence in Australia

The central, overarching concept of anti-vaccination stems from the period extending 1870’s(Weber, 2010) when individuals formed up groups to stop the then coercive and totalitarian vaccine acts on smallpox in the Victorian England. It was known as the Anti-Vaccination league, and it was founded in the response to ‘the vaccination Act of 1853(Kasarda 2013). The act stipulated that any parent who was found with a three-months-old baby and had refused to vaccinate the child was to face imprisonment. The campaigns went down at the turn of the century but then erupted in 1970’s with the start of vaccination attempts against tetanus, diphtheria, and pertusis. (Kasarda, 2013). In Slovakia, these movements began at the turn of the 21st century, and the media was the main communication platform.

In Australia, the movements begun at the medical dismissal and apparent deregistration of Dr. Wakefield in England in 1998. His article on Measles, Mumps and Rabies [Rao and Andrade, 2011; Dagnallet al.2015; Jolley and Douglas, 2014; Kasarda 2013] made wrong headlines and it lead to the growth of various forms of fear and confusion in the medical field. According to Kasarda [2013] Dr. Wakefield is regarded as the father of the anti-vaccination movement in the world. Deep into the nation, controversies began to grow stronger, and these led to the development of Australian Vaccination Network (AVN) which has given many parents a voice to express their sentiments. In 2013, there was an article on AVN website that was critically opposing the monopolistic attitude doctors show patients in matters to do with vaccines. In that, doctors and their professional bodies such as AMA and the RACGP and government officials need to express total truth to citizens about vaccines [Australian Vaccination Network, 2013]. Their totalitarian stance over vaccine administration is increasing skepticism and mistrust in parents. Parents see this as a way for these individuals to maintain healthcare monopoly while at the same time failing to reveal to them the truth about safety and effectiveness of the vaccines [Australian Vaccination Network, 2013].

Further, AVN sought to clarify that western economies report an increase of disabled and autistic children in the population. That in every six kids there is one child who is disabled and in every 50 there is a child who is autistic (O’shea, 2001). All these claims were attributable to vaccines. Even so these claims could be unfounded empirically, judging by various researches conducted over Dr. Wakefield’s findings [Rao and Andrade, 2011]. Evidently, proponents of anti-vaccination use few justifiable claims with so much unjustifiable misinformation to denounce vaccines (Behrmann, 2010). For instance, the AVN claim that doctors spend 8 years studying pharmacy in schools, they also demand respect from parents regarding their professional accolades, but when it comes to service delivery, certain serious information about vaccines are never revealed to parents. These are the same issues that proponents use to lay out accusations over the vaccines worldwide. These forms of statements, if proven, could have agonizing consequences on the level of vaccine administration and attitudes on vaccines not just in Australia but also worldwide.

According to McCutcheon [2015] recent developments in North South West town of Melbourne, (the town with the lowest child vaccine rate of 50%), shows how parents seem to be confused over this health Pandora. Some lay claims that the government is not fair in introducing the ‘no jab, no pay’ socio-economic policy which strips off parents the right to choose which vaccine is favorable to their kids. They claim the government is denying them social benefits by using dictatorial measures so as to profit the big pharmaceutical companies and health professionals. In that, an individual’s has a right to choose whether to go allopathic way or opt for the homeopathic direction for their kids’ health.[McCutcheon 2015]

Theme-2.Conspiracy beliefs

According to Jolley and Douglas (2015), conspiracy theories are efforts to elucidateproceedings as the secret acts of authoritative, malicious force. For example, conspiracy theories allege that the 9/11 attacks were orchestrated by the then US government. The study of conspiracy is very important for a number of valid reasons. Fist, according to Goertzel (1994), conspiracy theories persist within population for a long time. Secondly, they are regularly supported, and they may direct perceptions of significant contemporary (e.g Ebola transmission) and historical real events such as moon landings (Swami et al 2010). Illustratively, almost a third of American citizens believe that Barrack Obama ascended to presidency unconstitutionally (Uscinski et al 2011). According to Sutton and Douglas, (2014), these theories may sometimes not be false but they lack evidential support and are generally resistant to falsification. Further, belief in conspiracy theories may have social consequences such as diminished social engagement (society, climate change, health behavior and much more Butler et al, 1995; Bird and Bogart 2005; Jolley and Douglas, 2014). Evidently, the endorsement of conspiracy theory across every genre occurs when there is no definitive explanation for a given event or there is no official account to explain the same (Drinkwater et al. 2012). In view of the above, this analysis seeks to look at how conspiracy belief in Australia has defined the health boundaries in terms of vaccines.

In Australia, for example, the belief in conspiracy is evident by the numerous theories available all over the Australian websites. Illustratively there is this conspiracy theory about the disappearance of Prime Minister Harold Holt while swimming in 1967 (Tormsen, 2015). Some theorists believe that Vietnam’s debacle held him hostage, forced him to commit suicide or he ran with a mistress. Others believe that he was assassinated by a delayed effect drug placed in his drink while he was on the beach. British Journalist Anthony Grey sought to claim that Holt’s cover was blown by Australian intelligence also a code breaker discovered a tabular code hidden within his letters to China. He believed that Holt was working as a double agent for Chinese government and so his cover was blown by the cracker.(Tormsen 2015) Interestingly a huge following of Australian population believes in theories like this because they help in explaining a phenomenon when no truth is available to do the same (Jolley and Douglas 2013).

According to SunsteinVermeule (2008, p.4) for a conspiracy to be accounted for, it has to have an effort to explain some event or practice by reference to the machinations of powerful people. Generally, worldview refers to a set of interrelated assumptions about the nature of the world (Overton, 1991), that act as an interpretive lens for understanding reality and existence (Miller and Wet, 1993). Precisely, conspiracies worldview is characterized by high order beliefs (mistrust of authority, the conviction that nothing is the way it seems and Lies). Therefore, focus on rejection of official accounts is more important than the individual conspiracy theories themselves. (Dagnall et al. 2015)

In Australia,conspiracy theories against vaccines started to gain weight from the time Dr. Wakefield wrote his article on the effect of MMR (Measles, Mumps and Rabies) vaccines on autism. He is attributed to the current decline in the use of vaccination in the world and also in Australia. In his article, the Lancet in 1998 he denoted that there was a particular link between the MMR vaccination and the appearance of autism in Children. (Jolley and Douglas, 2014). Although his article was retracted, and he was deregistered, MMR vaccination rates continue to drop well below the recommended 95% uptake. In Melbourne, for example, vaccination uptake stands at 50% which is lowest as compared to third world countries like South Sudan.(McCutcheon 2015).There are several interventions which have come up to improve the uptake in various parts of the country but there still remains a problem. The method by Hopfer (2012) that emphasized the use of expert sources to persuade people toward vaccination and the other by Conroy et al(2009) which endorsed that vaccination is normative are some steps which never yielded much. Conspiracy allegations still featured as the major stumbling block to attaining and better acceptance of vaccines all over.

Jolley and Douglas(2014) did two studies on the effect of anti-vaccine conspiracy theories on Vaccination intentions. In the first study a fictitious child with a particular ailment was presented to a group of parents, and they were asked to indicate their intention to have the child vaccinated. On a scale 4,their answers were used to test the level of disillusionment they had specifically over anti-vaccination to either government or pharmaceutical companies. In the second study, it was postulated that using material which supports anti-vaccine conspiracy theories would influence their decision to have the fictitious child vaccinated. Therefore, they were exposed to material that supports anti-vaccination to see what would be their response? In their (Jolley and Douglas) results, they found out that,anti-vaccine conspiracy theories may have more than a trivial effect on vaccination intentions by all in the world. Thebelief in conspiracy theories (for example the belief that research on vaccine efficacy is manipulated to increase profits for huge pharmaceutical companies) is associated with reduced intentions over vaccinations. In detail, Jolley and Douglas demonstrated that exposure to anti-vaccine conspiracy directly affects vaccination intentions. Though their research was on point, it had a methodological problem as it failed to figure out the role of continued worldview misinformation on behavioral intentions over vaccines. In this study, there were several limitations which could be ironed out easily but of much significance

Lewandowsky and his colleagues (2013) tried to look at the role of conspiracist ideation and Worldviews in forecasting dismissal of science acceptance. In their submission they indicated that people’s political bearing and worldview can present the strongest obstacle to the uptake of scientific evidence. Further, Lewandosky et al (2013) indicated that the worldview – driven polarization increases with increase in knowledge and improved experience in science. It made them believe that the worldview rejection of science is not in any way related to peoples’ knowledge but individual differences in terms of psychosocial beliefs. But in regards to opposition to vaccines they indicated that this process involved a balance between negative association with free-market endorsement and a compensatory positive association with conservatism.In that liberals may oppose the government involvement in creation of coercive vaccine legislations and on the other hand, conservatists attack pharmaceutical companies for their high handedness in the creation of vaccine monopoly tradition. Although they brought the idea of science rejection with increased knowledge they failed to empirically show how the worldviews were closely related to continued science rejection.

It is important to note that, with the advent of the internet, parents who at one time were exposed to conspiracy material supporting ant-vaccine, showed less intention of vaccinating their children than those who have not (Jolley and Douglas, 2014). In that, anti-vaccination websites are seen to influence public perceptions towards vaccination (Behrmann, 2010). Moreover, the media (radio, television and internet) reports have developed anti-vaccine stance to the political left largely basing it spokespersons’ political leanings. But as people prove or disapprove events in terms of conspiracy theory, it remains to be seen what relationship does exist between anti-vaccination and conspiracy (Kasarda ,2013); Weber ,2010).

Shaped by the growth of forms of communication conspiracism has become a major sub-cultural occurrence. There has been increased research into the psychology of belief in conspiracy theories over the years. Although a lot of these researches have predominantly focused on individual relationships of conspiracy belief, the most interesting one is the understanding that a particular theory will likely predict another even if unrelated. (Goertzel, 1994 Douglas & Sutton, 2008; Swami Chamorro-Premuzic, &Furnham, 2010; Swami et al. 2011).For example, a person who believes that princess Diana was deliberately assassinated will definitely believe 9/11 attacks were plans by the US government.Moreover, studies have shown that the conviction on a conspiracy theory is much associated with existential danger and ambiguity (Newheister et al. (2011); Van Prooijen&Jostmann 2013; Whiston&Galinsky (2008). The best explanation for this scenario is that conspiracy theories are unitary. In that even when the orchestrators are different but events occurred in seamlessly near-perfect secrecy, it shows that many plots have truthfulness in them. Also, other studies have indicated that the presence of motivational and communal issues have had a strong approval of the theory (Douglass & Sutton 2011); Kramer (1998). But even as these issues interplay, the notion that the world as a place controlled by conspiracies can lead to conspiracy becoming the original clarification for any given occurrence. The type of the world noted here is one that is unitary, closed-off world, where beliefs act in a mutually supportive network (Clarke 2002; Goertzel, 1994; Swami et al.,2010, 2011)

In other researches, anti-vaccination campaigns have largely been as a result of dissemination and ‘sensationalization’ of vaccine objections by the media (Kata, 2010). For example, when people tend to believe in almost seamlessly possible every conspiracy theoriesspread by the media it becomes mercurial that fear or ambiguity of situations may be in interplay. For instance, in the AIDS conspiracy theory, individuals believe that it was caused by a western countries plot against the African-American and gay communities. (Goertzel 1994). A survey by African –American church members by the Sounthern Christian Leadership council found that 35% believed AIDS was a form of genocide. While on the other hand 10% of respondents in a survey by New York Times conducted in 1992 revealed that Oswald acted alone in assassinating JF Kennedy while 72% believed others were involved, and only 12% did not have a clue (Goertzel 1994). These forms of conspiracy theories seem to spread faster when there is no proper explanation for a given occurrence or when there is absolute fear. The reason they do so is because the world depends on conspiracies to explain phenomena and this has led to their worldwide acceptance.(Goertzel 1994, Swami et al 2011)

Moreover, conspiracy theories travel faster across ethnic line and age groups. (Goertzel, 1994)In, that Hispanics and Blacks believe these theories faster than whites because of ethnic marginalization. The youth also trust these theories much faster than any other age group. Probably that is why the internet reaches out to so many people because use of social media is largely by this group (Goertzel, 1994).

The worldwide view of vaccines is comparably shaped faster by conspiracy theories than any other construct. Indeed proponents of anti-vaccination limit their thinking and creativity to this theory because it is largely useful and superfluous in some cases. It has enabled them shape peoples’ attitudes over vaccines for generations and this has greatly enhanced their course. Yet people do accept them the way they are, they have largely helped to shape the world off unnecessary vaccines which in some cases could have been harmful to a population. All these findings seem to converge at a given underling factor (peoples’ broader worldview of believing in non-evidence based beliefs) that may be the cause of anti-vaccination. It is therefore recommended for governments like Australian to research on a given vaccine and factor in worldview attitudes over the same before enacting dictatorial policies like the ‘no jab, no pay’act for the NSW people.(McCutcheon, 2015)

Theme-3.Paranormal beliefs

The study of paranormal beliefs circles around the understanding of phenomena that if authentic violates basic principles of science[Broad, 1949; Tobayck, 1995]. It is very astonishing that very many people believe in the possibility of these phenomena, and these people include the most educated [Huntley and Peeters, 2010]. It perplexes the scientific community to the point that people form worldviews over vaccines when reasoning in the same line of thought.

Currently, there is no study that has tried to look at the relationship between this construct and anti-vaccination. But it is advisable to refer to the existing literature regarding the paranormal belief and science rejection and explain why there may be an insightful link. Studies conducted by Thalbourne (1981) reveals the evidence is pointing to people who believe in an afterlife also do believe in paranormal phenomena such as psychokinesis and ESP. Previous research has it that belief in paranormal phenomena is not associated with the rejection of mainstream science or technology at least among university students (Schouten, 1983). But Malinowski showed the connection of locus of control and paranormal beliefs by 1940. Although with the advent of modern tools (or scales) of measurement, these findings were refuted. It was then suggested that superstition and spiritualism should correlate positively, and psi belief should correlate negatively with an external locus of control (Wolfradt, 1997). As is with various forms of paranormal belief an individual is heavily influenced by cultural factors, such as family, peer group activities, media delivery of paranormal concepts and ideas and formal persuasion by social institutions e.g. Church (Schriever, 2000). These factors occur currently as is with the case of anti-vaccination struggles across the globe, where the internet shapes worldview opinions of parents all over against vaccines (Jolley and Douglas, 2010).In another study, gender differences have largely contributed to the spread of these ideas where women tend to score higher than men (Huntley &Peeters, 2005). The belief in paranormal phenomena makes people start creating a distance from reality (Huntley and Peeters, 2005). Further, that paranormal belief goes hand in hand with a tolerance of ambiguity and open-mindedness. It also leads those high in Openness to Experience to approve liberal political and social values because questioning conventional values is a natural extension of their curiosity (Huntley and Peters, 2005). However with all these in mind, there is little or no support for this theory (Huntley and Peeters, 2005).It means that anti-vaccination is related to an individual’s perception of things that are beyond his comprehension and locality. In that, individual differences in paranormal beliefs are the ones shaping perceptual decision- making in all corners of the world (Daum and Weibe, 2010). These differences are attributable to the worldwide view of issues concerning vaccines and the major doubts surrounding it.

In a study conducted by Huntley and Peeters, they showed that paranormal beliefs shape the line of thought of individuals in different ways. They also confirmed that previous exploratory studies on the relationship between religion and paranormal was indeed true. What they had anticipated before was indeed true, although there was a need to do further research to test the consistency of results. In that Neuroticism (Thalbourne, Dunbar and Delin, 1995) and Extraversion associated with paranormal (Thalbourne 1981; Eysenck, 1967; Thalbourne and Haraldson, 1980) and low Psychoticism (Agreeableness and Conscientiousness in the Five Factor Model) associated with religion. In other studies, there was a strong positive correlation between religiosity with belief in psychic healing and negatively with UFO belief (Clarke, 1991). Hillstorm and Strachan (2000) reported the negative relationship between religiosity and beliefs in telepathy, precognition, PK, psychic healing, UFOs, reincarnation and communication with spirits. The difference in results can be attributed to the different measurement scales that were employed by the researchers to measure paranormal beliefs.

According to Karlsson (2014) the role of paranormal beliefs in the fight against vaccines is not foreign. According to his interview with MayimBialik, paranormal believers act against science in very many different ways. They believe PK and psychic healing as the total solution to illnesses and reject the conventional ways of treatment. In that, the trust in pseudoscience is the only way to solve issues that seem not solvable by normal vaccines. They have changed the course of science and in doing this very many people have followed their beliefs. In this case, the media has largely helped in shaping the course of psychic scientists. They believe that diseases are caused by vaccines, and there is no way vaccines can help in the prevention of these diseases.Though there is no compelling research and evidence that directly links paranormal belief with the worldview over the vaccine, it is true that these constructs are correlates. The more individuals tend to focus on the ‘natural’ sense of treatment; they become less interested in the biomedical approach of disease prevention such as in vaccines. They believe their ability to control the psychic world and predict the future can cushion their energies towards preventing future disease attacks which is a total contrast to what science is promising. As they do this, they attract a large number of followers who seem to be in such of information that can help direct their thoughts over deciding on what to do with vaccines and their children (Kata, 2010).These factors have largely contributed to the worldwide view over vaccines and science rejection by paranormal believers.

Theme-4.Spirituality beliefs

Spirituality is an appeal to a basic sense of what is ‘natural’ not only in a biological context but a spiritual sense as well.[Battles 2008]. Staver [2005, p.23] argues that we must act our conscience and obey the laws of nature so that, we become good stewards of God’s creation. There those proponents who see vaccines as an unnecessary evil to the law of God and nature. According to O’shea (2001) vaccines are “unnatural,” conferring “artificial immunity” as opposed to “ natural immunity” to individuals and are an “interference with nature”[Petek-Dimmer 2002].Online websites represent a return to an idealized, natural existence that is purely spiritual or religious in nature.[Davies at al. 2002,p 24]. If “vaccines defiles the body” (Staver 2005, §31), not only are vaccines physically poisonous but potentially spiritually toxic too.

The war on vaccines from a natural metaphysical sense generates a lot of discussions from all dimensions of biomedical science. First, is the war over the sanctity of human blood against the idea that vaccines are made from the blood of animals [Oshea, 2001]. Also, since God created man in his image, it is true that total immunity is God’s.[Kata ,2010]. According to Florida (2010) a conflict arises if one believes that the body is a temple of God’s Holy Spirit and injecting the blood stream with toxic genetically engineered viral and bacterial proteins is in total violation of this law.

Further according to Orac (2015), believers in natural immunity like Lansky see vaccines as just mimics of natural immunity, which do not help in the prevention of diseases. Though Orac refutes their claim regarding immunity being weakened by vaccines. For instance, Lansky sees that the cellular immunity and humoral immunity can be weakened when vaccines are introduced into the body. By that she believes that vaccines over-stimulates, one-part of the immune system (Humoral immunity that activates reaction to a certain disease antigen) while leaving the cellular part of the immunity unexercised. Thereby developing autoimmune diseases has led to the body to become less and less natural in terms of disease-fighting (Orac, 2015). Although this may be true, the homeopathic allegations do not apply to vaccines. These are forms of non-evidence beliefs that help in propagating the Pandora against vaccines through the internet in the world. They show that believers in ‘natural’ medicine do not believe that vaccines can boost immunity rather they only make it worse. As such they have pushed for the worldwide attitudes towards vaccines especially to those parents to trust them than they believe in natural science.

Theme-5.Unscientific health beliefs

The Unscientific health beliefs relate to the opposition conventional medicine in favor of non-biomedical or natural forms of medicine. Individuals in this approach largely view conventional medicine as a way of creating a status quo of authoritative exploitation by individuals charged by the mandate to take care of others. They believe that vaccines are an unnecessary evil plot that are meant to profit manufactures at the expense of the people who use them. From these, they believe that diseases are necessary need to help in creating a balance in the immune system and protecting it against adjacent infections. These allegations brings this construct to the fore, what might be their points of arguments and there is need to look at some of these deep-lying beliefs, which are majorly psychosocial in nature than substantial

According to Battles (1998) the online authors articulate basic philosophical differences between the allopathic model to health and alternative medicine practice. First, according to O’Shea (2001,§43) they are trained from childhood that the responsibility of taking care of their bodies is entirely an outside authority’s role and not theirs, which, in essence, has resulted into so much fears and paranoia by so many individuals. Illustratively, Neustaedter (2007,§2) urges parents to “examine their beliefs” because when they accept vaccines, it means they are tacitly approving allopathic medical philosophy while refuting homeopathic one. They refute the biomedical approach that they view as very much mechanical as compared to the holistic approach that largely influences better disease treatment and prevention. In their view, the biomedical approach involves “assaults” with toxic chemicals as compared to the nurturing approach offered by alternative medicine. They describe “a shift in consciousness” (Neustaeder 2007, §9) and a growing acceptance” of alternative approaches (Boykin 2007,§25) Petek-Dimmer (2002, §7) calls for “a new relationship to diseases in general… relearning to accept illness as the normal part of life.” Also, these proponents believe that illnesses are beneficial after all. In that, they strengthen the immune system while at the same time the diseases cleanse the body.

There are also several perceptions that alternative medicine proponents offer against vaccines. Not only do they perceive that vaccines as “horrible substances” that pose a serious hazard to the body, they also believe the biomedical viewpoint of infectious disease should be avoided at all costs (Brusseaux quoted in Tyler 1991,§11). Interestingly, almost all online articles against vaccines present a negative perception over the physical composition of vaccines. There those who view vaccines as “poisons” (Jeri 1998, §2007; Loglia 2007,§65, 72,80), “toxic” substances (Boykin 2007, §1; Neustaeder 2007,§6,8) containing “virulent free-floating genetic material… with all kinds of poisonous, cancerous agents” (Loglia 2007,§32). Boykin (2007, §1) sees vaccines as “a concoction of bacteria and viruses that are manufacture using…aborted fetal tissue, dead animal flesh, and formaldehyde” while Jeri (1998, §7) adds “ethylene glycol (antifreeze)” is used in the composition of the vaccines. Gregory (2007) describes vaccination as pollution of the immune system. Others view that it unbalances the immunity by utilizing the humoral part while rendering the cellular part useless, thereby rendering individuals weak to new infection and even to resistance (Orac 2015).

Another common objection to vaccines is that they are injected directly into the bloodstream, bypassing the usual route of infection. Also expressed was the idea that once a person is injected with the virus, it does not leave his or her bloodstream and that this amounts to chronic illnesses (Battles 2008). The sentiments are relates to the tragic stories found on countless ant-vaccination websites, told by parents of “vaccine-injures” children who believe that their children’s medical conditions or deaths were caused by numerous vaccinations they had received. The perceptions that vaccines damage the immune system is widespread all over the anti-vaccinations websites found on the internet. Petek-Dimmer, for example, describes vaccination as upsetting “the ecological balances between human beings and microbes”. Tyler (1991,§1) sums up the general sentiment that vaccines are dangerous and pointless assaults on children’s bodies.”

In perspective, the worldwide view over vaccines has largely and predominantly shaped by the proponents of alternative medicine. Their unconvincing allegations cut across all websites found to propagate the same. In their view, the world is much was much safer than when vaccines were introduced to the fore. Intrinsically, they believe that the human immunity was weakened just when the vaccines were introduced. What they don’t seem to understand is the authoritative way governments of the world force their citizens into accepting vaccines for their kids while they can decide for themselves. It bit logic that something that is widely regarded as useful could be forced through people’s guts by use of force and fear. Moreover, if people were serious about vaccines, they would get them at will. Another point they regard useful is the spread of non-communicable diseases with the advent of vaccines. In early history when alternative medicine was the course of the day, such diseases such as cancer were not there or of were very limited. But since vaccines came, it is evident that people die daily out of the genetically synchronized illnesses passed to them through vaccines. What these people don’t understand is that in as much as vaccines may be “poisonous” made from tissues of aborted fetus, injected directly into the bloodstream or made from animal blood, most non-communicable diseases are lifestyle related. Therefore, individual perception and philosophies should not be used in any way to diverge from the necessary benefits offered by modern medicine in the world.

Theme 6- Link between the three constructs and future research

A consensus appears to be growing that these health-related beliefs are usually formed and maintained in individuals on psychosocial, rather than evidence-based criteria (Kazak et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2011). Understanding non-evidence based beliefs has clear insinuations for the design and targeting of health promotion activities. According to Lord et al., 1979 and Wilson et al. 2005, public health initiatives that directly confront these deep core beliefs may not be successful since this can create cognitive dissonance amongst the recipients of the information. Further, it may force them to be entrenched in their existing belief systems while refusing to acknowledge the benefits of vaccines. Alternatively, if health care providers address surface beliefs by providing balanced information, including potential vaccine-related risks, while emphasizing the overall favorable risk-benefit profile of vaccines, the long-term confidence in vaccination may be more likely to be supported. However, these are preliminary observations, and more research needs to be conducted to identify approaches to which most parents would be receptive (Wilson, et al. 2008).

Conclusion

The current paper serves to provide insights over the course of anti-vaccination movements that are defined in the course of worldwide attitudes. In deed research on this topic is complex because it is important to note that the views over vaccines have been shaped through the course of time by people’s psychosocial beliefs in multicultural contexts. In terms of worldwide views, conspiracy theory, spiritualism, paranormal and belief in alternative medicine have greatly enhanced the confidence gap. But it is clearly prudent to note that, in as much as people may hold divergent views over vaccines the only way to reach a consensus is to give them a voice to speak out their fears. On the other hand, medical practitioners need to hold up their total truth about these vaccines and tell their patients all the information they need to know before they can make a decision. It is not fair when the government makes totalitarian policies like the “no jab, no pay”, (Medew 2015) measures against its citizens when they truly know that the citizens can think for themselves.

 

 

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