Posted: June 12th, 2015
The US-UAE Military Bilateral Arrangements: Impact on the UAE National Security
I would like to take this opportunity to extend my sincere gratitude to everyone who contributed to this research. My family, friends and professors have supported me throughout my work and encouraged me in my endeavors. All these people had a firm belief that I would be able to complete the task within the stipulated time period. I am thankful to them for their faith in me and I am happy and satisfied that I could live up to their expectations.
| I declare that the work in this thesis was carried out in accordance with the regulations of Khalifa University of Science, Technology and Research. The work is entirely my own except where indicated by special reference in the text. Any views expressed in the thesis are those of the author and in no way represent those of Khalifa University of Science, Technology and Research. No part of the thesis has been presented to any other university for any degree. | |||
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ABSTRACT
There is increasing military bilateral arrangements between the United states of America (USA/US) and the United Arab Emitates (UAE). This study considers the critical question of the impact of this increasing US-UAE military bilateral arrangements on the national secuiry of the UAE. The study therefore reports the challenges or constrains that UAE security faces, as well as the prospects that lay ahead. The results show that from these bilateral arrangements, UAE has attained the latest military technology and the equipment. The research also shows that the country has attained strategic support from the US intelligence services and the vast US military bases which have been developed in the region. This study critically analyzes the dynamics of the US-UAE security bilateral arrangements, and their impact on the current and the future national security objectives of UAE. Although the UAE has enhanced its military capacity, due to the engagements with the US, it has also exposed itself to national insecurity threat. As a strategic partner of the US, the UAE aligns its regional and the international policies with US foreign policies. From this initiative the UAE is identified as a supporter of the US and makes it a target for anti US forces from a regional and the global perspective. This study has critically analysed the national security implications for the UAE, in terms of the security bilateral arrangements with the United States of America.
Table of Contents
1.1 Introduction to Chapter. 11
1.2 Background & Contemporary Factors. 15
1.4 Research Aim & Objectives. 22
1.7 Concepts, Variables & Indicators. 25
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW… 27
2.1 Core Components of US-UAE Security Bilateral Arrangements. 27
2.2 The US-UAE Cooperation Dynamics. 29
2.3 Strategic Impact of the Defense Cooperation Agreement 31
2.4 Strategic Training & Intelligence Sharing Program.. 33
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.. 40
3.1 Introduction to Chapter. 40
3.3 Case Study – Trade Activity with Iran. 46
3.3.1 Introduction & Historical Context 46
3.3.2 National Security & Economic Implications of US-UAE Relations. 46
3.4 Case Study – UAE Foreign Policy on Israeli/Arab Issue. 50
3.4.1 History & Background. 50
3.4.2 Impact on the US-UAE Relations. 51
3.5 Impact of the Realism Theory. 54
Power as Source of Certainty. 54
5.1 Strategic National Self Defense Objectives. 57
5.2 Significance of Transnational Societies & Laws. 58
4.1 The Future National Security Dilemmas for UAE.. 61
4.2 Collaborative Fighting Capabilities. 63
4.3 Strategic Geopolitical Positioning. 66
4.4 Immigrant Dependent Business Sector. 68
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH ANALYSIS. 72
5.3.1 Limitations on UAE National Security by ‘US-UAE Bilateral Security Arrangements’ 73
5.3.2 Impact on the Iran-UAE Relations. 75
6.2 Recommendations & future research. 85
- UAE: The United Arab Emirates
- DCA: Defence Cooperation Agreement
- NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- ISIS: Islamic State in Iraq and Syria
- CSI: Container Security Initiative
- MOFA: Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- MOI: Ministry of Interior
- GCC: Gulf Cooperation Council
- SOFA: The Status of Forces Agreement
- OIF: Operation Iraqi Freedom
- DNRA: Dubai Naturalization and Residency Administration
Figure 1: UAE Re-Exports to Iran…………………………………………………………. 46
Figure 2: UAE Population Imbalance (National & Non National)…………………………66
Table 1: NATO’s New Strategic Concept…………………………………………………. 46
1.1 Introduction to Chapter
The primary factor for the strong foreign relations present between UAE and the United States of America can be identified as the strategic geo-positioning of the region. The UAE is in an ideal location on the Arabian Gulf, where more than one quarter of the entire world’s oil is produced and shipped. The US foreign policy dependents highly on energy because of the high energy demand in their home country. As one of the top leaders in manufacturing and a major player in the manufacturing indudtry and trade sector, the US depends on the high demand of energy and supply chain to attain its economic growth objectives. This is the reason why the US government has formed strong relations with the UAE, as a strategic future partnership (Rugh, 1996)[1]. This relationship would allow the United States of America access to abundant oil resources. The implications for both countries of these relations are however different in nature. For the UAE, there are various trade and economic growth related benefits associated with a strategic partnership with the US. America is recognized as the global leader in various socio-economic and security related sectors. Through this partnership, UAE has been able to benefit from this strategic relationship. However there are other factors associated with these relations, which have complex implications on the sociological and national security of the UAE.
As a strategic partner of the US, the administration of UAE has vowed to maintain the security and stability of the Gulf region. The US to help maintain the security and stability in the Gulf region, as a part of the US-UAE partnership. The support provided by the US has an essential impact on the ability of UAE to administer its role as the peace keeping entity in the region (Katzman, 2010)[2]. The relationship with the UAE also provides the US with the opportunity to gain influence in the region. The technological and the military support which is provided to the UAE by the US homeland security, helps the UAE maintain a political influence in the region.
The 1994 Defence Cooperation Agreement (DCA) is the primary source for UAE-US bilateral security relationships. The agreement was signed by the United States of America for two main reasons. The primary factor was to increase the socio political influence in the Middle Eastern region. The Middle East holds a pivotal foreign relations value for the US, in increasing its influence in this region of the world, and also has an impact on its overall foreign relations strategy. Through its increasing authority in the Middle East, the US will attain a better foreign policy position, compared to other challenging nations. The DCA allows the US military admission to the Middle East, as the agreement allows the US to base troops and military equipment inside the UAE federation borders. Jebel Ali port which is situated in Dubai holds a crucial value to the US. The port is deep enough to berth an entire aircraft carrier (Foley, 1999)[3]. The second reason for the DCA can be identified as the influence on the vast energy industry. The United States has one of the largest energy requirements present within the global platform. The country has vast development and growth objectives due to which there is a constant demand for a high level of energy. The UAE is situated in a strategic location with in the Gulf region, which allows it access to one quarter of the global oil production and shipment.
The UAE has also played a vital role in the American activities in the region following its initiative to fight against terror. The UAE had been providing complete logistical support to the US in the year 2003. Through this support, the US was able to successfully implement its operations in Iraq. Relations with the UAE also allowed the US to maintain its activities within the country, in the long term perspective (Yetiv, 2004)[4]. The UAE has also aided the US initiative to support nation building activities within Iraq, following their widespread conflicts. The UAE support for the American conflicts within the region has not only been present in recent history, but was also present prior to the signing of the DCA in 1994. The UAE also openly supported the United States in 1990 as the Gulf War was initiated. UAE forces played a more proactive role in Somalia during the year 1992. Along with other countries which were joined by the US Central Command, the UAE played a strategic role in the attainment of security in the region.
The country has also played a pivotal role in humanitarian efforts in the region, in the aftermath of mass conflicts. The involvement of the UAE in US led conflicts; highlights its support of UAE to the American goals; even prior to the official signing of the bilateral security agreement in 1994. The existing positive bonds present between UAE and the US facilitated the attainment of the DCA. The country has aligned interests with the US, due to which both nations have enjoyed positive relations in the historical context (Kirisci, 1997)[5]. The DCA however further bolstered this relationship which was present among both countries, and helped consolidate the US presence in the Middle East. The US was able to bolster its military presence in the region through this agreement and also develop strategic bases. This is a major political agreement for both of these countries, as it has long term socio-economic and security implications.
The UAE has developed a strategy to maintain positive relations with the western entities, which can be reflected in the foreign policy of the country. The strategic relation with the western countries allows the UAE to extract various military and the economic growth benefits (Afrasiabi & Maleki, 2002)[6]. Over the years, the US has been involved in various military conflicts all over the globe and the UAE has developed the policy of supporting the western nation. In the Bosnia-Kosovo conflict, UAE also provided the strategic humanitarian assistance in the country after the heavy suffering inflicted by the conflict. Another major fallout of the bilateral security agreements between the US and the UAE can be identified as the commitment of the UAE to fight the threat of terrorists.
The fight against the threat of terrorism is a crucial component of the overall US policy, and as a strategic partner UAE has been able to commit to this fight against the terrorist forces. ISIS has emerged as the latest extreme Islamist terrorist organization, which is highly active in the Middle Eastern region of the world. The majority of western countries have highlighted their reservations regarding the growing influence of ISIS, and the threat that it could pose to the western countries in the future (Ramazani, 1992)[7]. As a result, the US has been seeking to develop regional military intervention strategies against the ISIS forces. UAE has vowed to fully commit to the US led initiative against the ISIS forces, which are also joined by various other western nations.
The country has sought to battle against the ISIS forces which are present within Syria and Iraq. The battle against these terrorist organizations is highly complex in nature, and western countries have to develop multi-dimensional intervention strategies to cope with this. In this scenario, support from regional stakeholders can provide a strategic benefit in the military initiatives against these organizations. UAE has been able to identify the threat posed by ISIS to not only the western nations in the future scenario, but also to its growth in more progressive countries. If the relevant initiatives are not undertaken to limit the influence of ISIS in the region, the issue can spread exponentially and radical religious groups may also start to emerge within the UAE.
1.2 Background & Contemporary Factors
Following the September 11 terrorist attacks which occurred in the United States of America, the country became highly active in different regions of the world. The war against terror has caused the United States to invest in a global initiative through which vast international terrorist groups can be identified and engaged. In the fight against terrorism, the Middle East is a very important geographical region. The security arrangements with the UAE have allowed the US to attain support for its military initiative in the Gulf region. It is due to this reason that the US has been able to deploy more than 2000 military personnel, which are hosted by the UAE (Cordesman, 2003)[8]. The ports available in the UAE provide a strategic military advantage for the US Navy.
US naval vessels make more visits to UAE ports than any other port located in other regions of the world. This highlights the strategic value which the US Navy places on the UAE ports. The UAE also provides strategic assistance to US Air Force operations, primarily through the Al Dhafra Air Base. These security bilateral arrangements have allowed the US to develop a significant military presence in the Gulf region. This is a highly important factor in the context of the contemporary global security environment. Its presence in the Middle East allows the US to directly combat the terrorist forces which are present in the area.
The security arrangement which has developed with the United States of America also provides various military benefits to the UAE. The most sigfnicant benefit can be identified as the transfer of the latest weapon technologies and intelligence from the US. Secondly the country is also able to benefit from hosting the Joint Air Warfare Centre and joint training exercises with US forces. These joint training programs are essential in the development of the national military forces (Rustow, 1977)[9]. UAE military forces are able to enhance their various military capabilities through the joint training program held with the US forces. The UAE has also showed a positive commitment to US based interests in the region and actively participates in the majority of the US initiated military conflicts. The support and development of the new Iraq government is an extension of this agreement between the two countries. The situation in Iraq is in a very complex state at the moment, and a vast growth and development initiative is required to assist this nation. The UAE has been able to provide various forms of support including: free medical treatment, hospital reconstruction, humanitarian supplies and police training (Shalhoub, 2006)[10]. These are the fundamental growth requirements which are currently present in Iraq.
The UAE has collaborated strategically with the US forces, in order to diminish the influence of the terrorist organizations present in the region. The country has conducted a critical root cause analysis of the terrorist dilemmas and has sought to counter these threats through attacks on the terrorist finance networks. The primary reason for the exponential growth of terrorist groups in the current global environment can be identified as the formal international networks which these groups have been able to take advantage of. Hence as a component of the strategic military alliance with the US, the UAE has sought to attack the source of funding for these terrorist organizations. In this regard, the UAE in 2005 committed to the International Convention on the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism.
As a part of the anti-terrorism initiative which has been initiated in the UAE, the county has developed various anti-terrorism laws, in the form of counter terrorism financing regulations. The complex financial networks which the major terrorist organizations have been able to develop in the recent past, have allowed them to enhance the scope of their activities. The US has developed the strategy of attacking the formal international terrorist networks, which would help reduce the future threat posed by these entities. The UAE has fully committed to these anti-terrorism initiatives, which have been championed by the US. The county has also undertaken the initiative of freezing the financial accounts of identified terrorist organizations. The identification of terrorist groups is an essential component of this initiative. The US forces have provided strategic assistance in this process, and have helped the UAE authorities strategically to dismantle these complex terrorist financial networks.
The country has developed a strong anti-terrorism policy regarding port operations, so that they are able to better protect global trade from the threat of terrorism. This threat to western and developing nations is present across various areas, hence a collaborative effort has to be initiated against this growing dilemma. UAE is the first Middle Eastern country to gain membership of the Container Security Initiative (CSI), which highlights the commitment of the country towards the battle against terrorist activities and security objectives (Vivoda, 2009).
The CSI is an international program championed by the US, to protect global trade from terrorism, hence CSI has stationed US Customs officers inside Dubai’s ports. The UAE has committed to the International Convention on the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism and is a signatory to the Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism. This initiative is part of the commitment of the country towards the battle against the growing threat of terrorism in the region. This commitment to fight terrorist elements in the region is also a major objective for the US. Thus this is one of the core reasons that the US sought to develop security based relations with the UAE. The American government wanted to establish a core military partnership with a country in the Middle Eastern region. The proximity and the influence of the UAE within the energy industry is also a major factor for American interests in the country. The UAE also has been able to benefit from the strategic alliance with the US, in terms of the military growth and the economic development (Kahwaji, 2004)[11]. The bilateral security arrangement has facilitated the transfer of the various military technologies, along with the US support in other core development areas.
One of the most significant benefit that the UAE is able to attain from the partnership with the US can be highlighted as support in military technology and intelligence. The US has developed various joint training programs, through which the military capabilities of UAE have been bolstered. This relationship however has been mutually beneficial in nature, as America has become the core military supplier for the country (Ramazani, 1998)[12]. The US has been able to develop a sustainable market for its high tech military weaponry products, whereas UAE has been able to gain access to some of the most advanced forms of military equipment. In the year 2009, the UAE purchased more than 15 billion dollars’ worth of defence equipment from the US.
Within this mega military strategic alliance, the UAE has been able to receive one of the most advanced missile systems which have been developed in the world. Although the bilateral security relations present between both of the countries have had a mutually beneficial impact, there have been certain complex implications for the UAE. The country has been able to dramatically promote its military strength and ability to uphold its peace-making role in the region. Thus the UAE has been able to enhance its influence in the majority of the regional conflicts as a direct impact of the strategic relationship developed with the United States of America. There are however certain long term implications of the various bilateral security arrangements which have been developed with the United States.
The UAE and the US have also combined their efforts to alleviate the issue posed by the terrorist organization ISIS. As highlighted, the issue of terrorism is a major component of the US foreign policy, and the agreement between the countries is based on the anti-terrorism objectives (Kamrava, 2012)[13]. In order to achieve this anti-terrorism goal, the UAE is not only partnering with the US to defeat the ISIS network in the region, but also within various other western nations. The fight against terrorism has become one of the most strategic components of the US and UAE bilateral security arrangement. The important factor to highlight regarding the involvement of the UAE in this fight is that it is multi-dimensional in nature. The UAE forces provide the America and western nations with the full support which is required for military operations within this region; however the commitment of the country even extends this further.
The UAE has highlighted the source of the issues which are present in the region which bolster the growth of the terrorist organization (McMichael, 2013)[14]. As an initiative to fight the source of the terrorist groups in the Middle East, UAE has committed to improve the socio-economic condition in the various poverty stricken areas. It has been highlighted that the lack of socio-economic opportunities in various Middle Eastern countries, has become a major factor which leads to the success of the terrorist organizations. The people support the terrorist organizations due to the lack of growth opportunities which they are able to access within their societies. This is the fundamental factor which the UAE has identified for the growth of the terrorist organizations in the region.
Over the past years, UAE has established bilateral relations with other states. Its long-standing relationship with Pakistan was established in November 1972. To date, UAE donates and supports Pakistan in many diversified sectors. These sectors include social development sector, economic development sector, infructural development and political support. Humanitarian assistance from UAE to Pakistan contribute to good results in far flung areas of Pakistan (Ul Hassan, 2015)[15]. UAE and Algeria have more than 30 cooperation agreements since establishment of bilateral in 1974. The agreements are in the areas of the economy, investment, tourism, double taxation, education, judiciary, agriculture, environment and the media.
In general, the UAE has over 35 Bilateral treaties with both developed and developing countries. Some of these countries include Algeria, Armenia, Austrial, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, China, Republic of Czech, Egypt, France, Finland, France Germany, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Morrocco, Poland, Romania, Russia, Sudan, Sweden, Turkey, Ukranine, the UK, Vietnam and Yemen. The treaties help in creating conditions that arefavourable for economic cooperation cross the border and encourange investment and equal protection of investments by foreign nationals. These treaties also establish a substantive permissible standards of conduct that the countries commit to provide to the investments among themselves (Cinoti, 2012)[16]. UAE is also subscribes to International Center for settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) convention. This is a multiparty treaty which has over 140 member states. Being an ICSID convention member UAE has consent to arbitrate disputes at convention.
1.3 Problem Statement
The US and UAE security bilateral arrangement which was developed through the DCA, is a highly complex agreement which consists of various factors. The strategic partnership between both of these countries includes the socio-economic, security and the political alliance. The majority of global alliances between countries are predominantly based on the socio-economic growth factors, as countries seek to enhance their trade relations. Although economic growth is a component of the DCA between the UAE and the US, it is not the main objective. The main objectives of the agreement are focused on the commitment of both countries towards military strategy and the fight against terrorist forces. The US as one of the strongest military powers represented on the globe stage has a significant interest in the Middle East (Marr, 1995)[17].
Since the September 11 terrorist attack in the America, the US has become highly active in the international fight against various terrorist organizations. It is due to this reason that the United States developed the DCA with the UAE, which has provided the US with complete access to the Gulf region. Over the years the alliance between the two counties has strengthened and the bilateral ties have expanded including areas of military cooperation, cyber security, defence procurement, overseas operation support, intelligence efforts and homeland security. This agreement has also led UAE to focus on international issues which are differentiated form its core national objectives. The UAE has to critically analyse the long term impact of the military strategy that it has developed as a direct result of the alliance with the US. The country is now highly active in other regions of the world like in Afghanistan, Iraq and Kosovo, due to its aggressive effort to accomplish its role as a premeditated partner of the US. The involvement of the UAE in such complex and geographical spread conflicts of the world can have multiple implications on the national security goals.
Due to its geographical location in the western region of the world , the United States of America and does not face the imminent terrorist threats which can be experienced by the UAE; due to the geographical proximity of UAE to the terrorist threat. The primary reason that the American government is looking to develop an international effort against the various growing terrorist organizations, is to diminish future security threats which may be posed by these entities. If these terrorist organizations were able to develop a strong international network, their influence on the western region of the world would increase (Dannreuther & Peterson, 2006)[18]. This is the major factor due to which the US developed the DCA pact with the UAE, so that it could gain access to the region and implement its international military operations. The issue for the UAE in this context is its proximity to the conflict areas and the short term national security threats. Unlike the US, the UAE is present within the conflict zone, and hence could be a realistic target of the terrorist groups.
The terrorist organizations have explicitly identified their issues with the American forces and also their allies. In the scenario where these organizations within the region were able to enhance their influence regionally, the UAE would face an imminent terrorist activity threat. There are vast national security implications which are present for the UAE in the context of the contemporary global environment. Its partnership with the US has caused the UAE to be viewed as similar to the western countries, who are the main targets of the terrorist organizations. This is the core issue which has arisen for the UAE, which has to be critically analysed. There are numerous factors which have to be included in the analyses of the national security attributes of UAE (Nonneman, 2006)[19]. Numerous security dilemmas have been created as a result of the strategic security alliance with the United States of America. The comprehensive analysis of the regional and the international factors would help highlight the overall impact of the DCA and the overall partnership of the UAE with the US, on the imminent national security objectives of the country and the long term development goals.
1.4 Research Aim & Objectives
The aim of this research initiative is to critically analyse the core components of the bilateral security arrangements between the US and UAE. The overall impact of the DCA on the long term socio-economic growth and the security related attributes of the UAE will be analysed. The study has focused on the objectives of both countries concerning their strategic relationship. The increasing motivation of the US has been currently focusing on military engagement in the Gulf region in order to cope with the growing terrorism threat. The objective of the UAE has been primarily focused on socio-economic growth, which is attained from the strategic partnership with one of the most influential economic super powers in the world. The implication of this relationship for the UAE has been highly complex in nature as the national security challenges have emerged. The study has also focused on the cost benefit impact of the strategic relation between both of the countries.
The UAE has been able to attain short term benefits from these strategic relations; however there are various long term national security implications which have also emerged. The relationship with its US counterparts has caused the UAE to become a proactive stakeholder in the global fight against terrorism. Although the US has been the leader in the global initiative against these organizations, it is not directly exposed to the terrorism threat. The UAE however is directly exposed and therefore faces imminent national security risks. The partnership with the United States has caused the country to take a proactive role in the direct combat with terrorist organizations in various regions; hence it has now become the target of the terrorist entities. Although the US has provided the UAE with the latest military technology and the intelligence, the pact has still exposed the country to a vast terrorism threat. This is the risk which will be critically analysed in the research initiative, and also the long term implications for the UAE will be similarly analysed. The long term analysis will identify the core issues which can emerge for the national security based objectives of the UAE.
Another crucial aim of the study is to analyse the involvement of the UAE in direct conflict with the various terrorist organizations represented in the region and in the global context. From a recent perspective, the UAE authorities have been able to bolster their military capabilities due to the defence support provided by the United States of America. The increased involvement in the fight against terrorism has also created various regional political implications for the country (Blanchard & Kerr, 2009)[20]. This study will also analyse the socio-economic impact of the newly developed military strategy of the UAE and the fight against various terrorist organizations. The comprehensive analysis of the DCA will help analyse the overall impact of the US – UAE security relations and its impact on the national security attributes of UAE.
The rise of the UAE owing to the increased bilateral arrangements with the US has challenged and imposed some limitations on the role of the small states in relative politics and international relations in the region (Kristian, 2012)[21]. Opportunities for these small governments to make their voices heard have flourished in today’s extremely globalised environment where authority is projected through several channels and does not rely on the size of the territory than ever before. Their status as resource-rich policies with a highly-concentrated decision-making core frees rulers from many of the constraints on states with more participatory political systems (Katzman 2014)[22]. Particularly, this includes Kuwait, which is a fellow GCC member, and which had experienced an extended political struggle between its firm National Assembly and its appointed government over the same period of time in the 2000s. Leaders who are dynamic and proactive adopt policy choices that hold analytical and comparative significance for the study of the Gulf states in the contemporary international systems.
The UAE traditionally pursues a careful foreign policy and maintaines a generally low profile on both regional and international stages. Nevertheless there is a continued chaotic unrest spreading throughout the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). The UAE’s leadership is setting the Gulf states in a course of rapid militarization in its effort to safeguard security and stability (Young K. 2014)[23]
The UAE has never attained a strong or self-governing military power. It has been relying on foreign alliances like United States to uphold its security. Historically, foreign policy the UAE’s has been created by its ability to influence its natural resource wealth in order to project foreign influence and maintain its geopolitical rank in the gulf (Zakaria, F. 2011)[24]. Nonetheless, the leadership of the Emiratis has changed responding to the ongoing conflicts in the region that have caused several geopolitical impacts that perturb Emirati officials.
The military heavyweights of the Arab world like Egypt, Iraq, and Syria are now weaker, wrapped up in domestic uprising, and are therefore unable to scheme military powers as they did before. How Turkey has responded to the Arab uprising has produced several political setbacks, burdens to the economy, and challenges of national security for Ankara (Gray, M., 2014)[25]. In addition, the US pivot to Asia has brought a general sense that the U.S. is steadily moving away from the gulf, leaving its allies with enduring worries on how to keep security in the long term.
Within this set up, the UAE’s leaders seized a prospect to declare the country as a forceful military player in the region. UAE has in recent years sought ambitiously to scheme military potential in the Gulf, and it has achieved with relative ease, because the Emiratis can invest heavily in military imports. Some analysts have doubted whether the UAE can ever be super military power in the region, because of its small local population and the lack of experience in running a world class military alone. But from the recent spending on defense and recent military activities in Libya and in Syria indicate that Abu Dhabi is confident that it can be. (Zaki, I. H., & Mulay-Parakh, R., 2008)[26].
1.5 Research Questions
This study seeks to answer the following questions concerning the relationship between the US and the UAE in reference to the security issues.
- What is the impact of the US-UAE security bilateral arrangements on the national security of UAE?
- How does the US-UAE security bilateral arrangement constrain/restrain the UAE’s nation security choices?
- What are the strategies which can be adopted by the UAE to alleviate the national security issues created by the security bilateral arrangements with the US?
The security bilateral arrangements developed between the US and the UAE have had negative implications on the national security objectives of UAE. As a strategic partner of the US, the UAE constrained to pursue national interests which are not aligned with US foreign policies. Therefore these security arrangements have restricted the national security alternatives which are present for the UAE.
1.7 Concepts, Variables & Indicators
The concepts, variables and the indicators for this study will include the following:
- Security bilateral arrangements – for example DCA.
- UAE’s nation security – this include: outcomes of sovereignty, territorial independence, and agencies that deliver this (Military, MOFA, MOI).
- Key agency focuses – for example stability, security, protection from the Muslim Brotherhood, Iran, organized crime, terrorism, people smuggling and so forth.
The research findings which have been developed in this study will have a sigfnicant value for the governing authorities within the UAE. The study has analyzed the strategic impact of the US-UAE security bilateral arrangements on the national security interests of the country. This analysis will help provide future policy alternatives which exist for the UAE regulatory authorities. The issue of terrorism and violent attacks is a very challenging dilemma for the UAE which has to analyze the future ramifications of its current strategy in the region. Through the comprehensive analysis of the socio-economic and the national security impacts of these bilateral arrangements, this study will also highlight a potential future course of action. UAE policy makers will therefore be able to utilize the findings of this study, to develop a more effective and proactive national security strategy, which would help them diminish the threat which is present in the country. Development of an efficient national security strategy is crucial for a country. Hence, this research will analyze the greater part of the factors associated with the current security bilateral agreement developed with the United States.
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a federation of seven states formed in 1971 by the then Trucial States after independence from Britain. It is a small state with a population of about 2.4 million and an area of 82,880 square kilometers. Its location geographically puts a heavy burden on its undertakings of the foreign policy foreigh policy. In addition, being a federal state, the nature of its political system has enabled neighbouring Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq to affect its foreign policy on various issues. There are cross-cutting regional pressures reflected in the paradoxes that appear in UAE relationships with three neighboring powers (International Business Publications, 2013).
UAE has since establishment, grown from the middle of nowhere to become one of the Middle East’s most powerful economic centres (Al, A. I., 2001)[27] Before oil was discovered in the 1950s the UAE’s economy depended on fishing and a pearl industry which was declining. When Abu Dhabi became the first emirate to export oil, the country’s economy and society have been transformed. The industry attracts a large influx of foreign employees who, constitute up to more than three quarters of the population. (Cordesman,1997)[28]
Oil discovery is attracting more foreign investment for the more ambitious construction projects and revolutionary land reclamation projects which include the palm-shaped artificial Palm Islands. In 2009, Dubai was hit by the global economic crisis, where the property and construction sector was declining. However, tourism, trade and the retail sector remained upbeat.
UAE is is the most liberal country in the Gulf because it tolerates other cultures and beliefs but it remains politically dictatorial. Until 2006, UAE was the only country in the gulf without elected bodies but it held a half-elected federal assembly, which was however constrained to a consultative role (Findlow, 2000)[29].
2.1 Core Components of US-UAE Security Bilateral Arrangements
The foundation for US and UAE relations were informed by the nature of the regional politics present in the Gulf region. Following the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, various countries in the region had highlighted the security threat which was developing. The Iraqi and the Iranian regimes were becoming highly dominant in the region, which was causing a power struggle in the Gulf. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in the year 1990 brought to the fore the requirement of western assistance in achieving the security objective of the UAE. The country highlighted the United States of America as a strategic partner, which would not only provide it with military assistance in maintaining peace, but also the intelligence which would bolster the socio-political influence in the region (Haass, 2008)[30]. Initially the UAE did not perceive the Sadam Hussain led regime present in the northern Gulf region as an imminent security threat, however it identified Iran as a potential threat. The volatility in the region was increasing significantly, for this reason the UAE required assistance from the western powers. The threat Iran poses has played a main role in the foreign policy of the UAE, and the US relations have allowed the UAE to increase control of the growing authority of the Iranian regimes.
The US also has strategic foreign policy motives to control Iranian influence in the region and has sought to equip the UAE with the latest military weapons. The US provided UAE with high tech missile defense capabilities in order to counter the Iranian ballistic missiles technology. The foreign policy of Iran is also a sigfnicant threat to the United States hence the US also has an interest to diminish the military dominance of Iran in the Gulf region (Gause, 2005)[31]. This is the main reason why the military relations developed between the two countries and the transfer of the sophisticated weapon technology to the UAE by the US allies. The UAE has been recognized as a strategic partner by the United States of America which would help it maintain the peace and security in the Gulf region. The Gulf region consists of various countries which can pose a future security threat to the United States of America, and it has sigfnicant interests in the regional politics and security situation.
The 2011 Middle East uprising introduced a threat to the stability which had been developed on a collaborative basis between the US and the UAE. Various countries within the region experienced a mass level socio-economic change, in which the overall population had become highly volatile in nature (Katzman, 2010)[32]. The UAE highlighted the potential threat this volatile movement could present and therefore developed objectives and strategies to diminish the impact of this movement within the UAE nation. The strategic partnership with the US allowed the UAE administration to focus on the long term goals of its country. The UAE had realized that it had to develop regional stability in order to achieve its socio economic growth objectives. This can be identified as one of the major factors which encouraged the UAE to seek the support of the western countries. The UAE leadership had noted the threat resulting from power dynamics in the region. The Iraqi assault on Kuwait had bolstered this insight, and consequently, more strategic partnerships were established with the United States. From these relations with the US, the UAE also established long term partnerships with other western countries, and initiated several joint efforts to combat equally beneficial objectives.
2.2 The US-UAE Cooperation Dynamics
The main objective of the UAE in the strategic partnership with the US was to gain the support of a western super power, in order to gain influence in the region. The primary objective of the US on the other hand was based on the development of an international anti-terrorism network (Walt, 2005)[33]. The US has had a vast interest in the Middle East due to its strategic role in the global anti-terrorism initiative. The US wanted to develop a strategic partnership which would be able to provide access to the region and also play a proactive role in the fight against terrorist forces. This is the reason why the UAE has had to develop an active role in security based activities in the region. As a direct impact of the bilateral arrangements between the both countries, UAE had to take part in all of the GCC security and foreign policy coordination mechanisms (Rabi, 2009)[34]. The development of the Iranian nuclear capabilities do not only have vast regional implications, but they can also impact the global political framework. The foreign policy of the major western countries are focused on the restriction of the Iranian nuclear program ambitions. The UAE has played a major role in voicing its concerns against this program.
Another major challenge which is highlighted by the majority of the GCC members is the growing influence of the vast terrorist organizations in the region. The majority of the GCC leaders have identified this threat and the future risks which can develop. A challenge which confronts the GCC can be identified in the different political strategic developments regarding the Muslim Brotherhood movements which have emerged in the region (Grant et Al, 2007)[35]. Different countries have perceived organizations such as the Muslim Brotherhood from diverse perspectives.
This lack of political unity has creates several challenges for the GCC memebers in their attempt to establish a sustainable agreement, and improve the security situation in the region. Various other issues such as the UAE border disputes and the ideological conflicts with Saudi Arabia, have also negatively impacted the overall objectives of the GCC. The Treaty of Jeddah (1975), had a controversial effect on the political framework of the Gulf region. Saudi Arabia dignified its access to the Arabian Gulf through through a UAE corridor. This was in return for giving UAE formal control of villages in the Buraymi oasis area. The UAE and other smaller Gulf states have developed reservations regarding the growing influence of Saudi Arabia in regional politics. These countries do not want to foster a situation, where the influence of Saudi Arabia exceeds the other stakeholders. This is the major reason why the GCC states are reluctant to develop collaborative relations with the United States of America. It is in the self-interest of the various Gulf countries to build strategic partnerships with the western super powers however, they do not want to limit their regional control of the political framework (Hiebert, 2005)[36].
This is the reason why the Gulf countries prefer bilateral relations with the United States, instead of the GCC bloc establishing these relations. These countries have developed the perceptron that GCC bloc negotiations would provide countries such Saudi Arabia with a greater influence in regional politics. Saudi Arabia would be able to develop strategies which would be focused solely on their national interests rather than the regional security objectives. This dilemma is alleviated through bilateral arrangements which the separate Gulf counties are able to develop with the United States of America. These relations help countries to focus on their national objectives and hence develop effective security strategies.
2.3 Billateral vs Multilateral Approach
Bilateralism means the political, economic, or cultural relations between two sovereign states. Multilateralism on the other handinvolves multiple countries working in concert on a given issue. When creating foreign policies, governments face the choice of either utilizing multilateralism or bilateralism. If they choose multilateralism, it means there is a harmonized approach with a number of other countries instead of a single one. Bilateral approach involves policies that are not in line with other countries and that engage directly with another country singly. By contrast Multilateral approach involves the coordinating of the policy among three or more governments, and coordination around a series of generalized principles of conduct (Buckley et. al, 2008)[37]
Multilateral approach also involves principles which spell out appropriate ways for a class of actions disreregarding the particularistic interests of the countries or the strategic exigencies that exist in any definite occurrence (Ruggie 1993, pg. 11)[38]. USA and the UAE enjoys a Bilateral association with each other and this creates a strong government-to-government ties which include a close security cooperation. The value of the US-UAE relations has increased significantly because of coalition campaigns led by the US to end the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. Ports in UAE host more ships from the U.S. Navy more than any port outside the US.
2.4 Strategic Impact of the Defense Cooperation Agreement
In the framework of the Defense Cooperation Agreement (DCA) developed and agreed between the US and the UAE in the year 1994, confidential documents are drawn up which consist of details regarding the security and military alliance between both countries which would eventually lead to a mutually beneficial and sustainable objectives (Haddad, 2004)[39]. The DCA is developed as a component of the long term strategy of both countries, who have a history of strategic collaborations in the past. Both countries have identified each other as crucial partners, who can help support goals which have a positive impact for both stakeholders. The DCA becames a part of the future foreign policy direction and the socio-economic collaboration arrangements between the US and the UAE. This is followed by another crucial agreement, the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA), which is a landmark agreement developed between the two countries.
The SOFA is an unprecedented UAE agreement with a western super power, which highlights the intent and the future direction of the country. The SOFA provides the US with a vast influence in the regional political and also the national political framework of the UAE. As per the provisions of the agreement, the United States of American gains strategic immunities within various regions of the country (Ulrichsen, 2009)[40]. This is a major trust based agreement which the UAE has developed with a non-Gulf country. The agreement however faces numerous challenges in the time frame in which it is implemented, and this has led to the revision of the policy. There are numerous controversial issues which have been created as a direct impact of the SOFA agreements which forces the UAE to make various policy changes. For example, the vast freedom in which the United States is provided within the UAE is restricted, and a case-by-case issue handling policy has been implemented. Even though SOFA has eventually been abolished and various strict provisions have been made, the initiative highlights the intent of both countries. The UAE has identified the US as their long term military and a growth partner in the socio-economic sector. UAE is willing to offer a unique regional and national access to the country.
The DCA provides the US with strategic access in the Gulf regions which have been utilized by the UAE in the recent conflicts. As per the provision of the DCA, UAE allows America to access the large Jebel Ali port, which has the capacity to handle large aircraft carriers. The UAE also allows the US to pre-position equipment and also strategically upgrade the air fields (El-Hokayem & Legrenzi, 2006)[41]. The development of the air fields in the UAE has provided the US with a sigfnicant advantage, which has been effectively utilized in the large scale Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). The UAE airfields have been successfully used by the US forces during the attack on Iraq conflict, due to their strategic location in the UAE. The airfields and the US bases on UAE soil have also been utilized in operations against Afghanistan. The security bilateral relations with the UAE have allowed the US to gain various military advantages, and achieve effective results in the various Middle Eastern conflicts (Hutchings & Weir, 2006)[42].
Without these strategic arrangements with UAE, the US would have had to significantly invest in the Middle Eastern conflicts, and might not have been able to achieve positive results. Along with providing the strategic positioning support for the US, the UAE authorities have also played a proactive role in the fight against terrorism and other US conflicts. The role in the humanitarian efforts of the UAE in Iraq and Afghanistan has significantly benefitted the United States of America, as the US sought to alleviate the humanitarian concerns which emerged in these regions following the conflicts. Finally, the DCA provisions allows the US to take advantage of the strategic benefits and gain control over the security environment within the region.
2.5 Strategic Training & Intelligence Sharing Program
The DCA does not only focus on the transference of military technology from the US to the UAE, to help it expand its control of the regional political framework, but also committs to a strategic military intelligence sharing agreement which helps the UAE forces promote their overall capabilities. The Joint Strategic Military Dialogue initiative which is cultivated by the US has the main objective of enhancing the military capabilities of the UAE counterparts (Jarrah, 2006)[43]. This initiative is undertaken due to the enhanced national security risk which is faced by the UAE. As a strategic partner of the US and the western forces, the UAE developes numerous strategies against the terrorist forces which are present in the regional and also on the global scale. However, this strategy exposes the UAE as a major target for terrorist organizations. Although the US equippes the UAE with personal, equipment and intelligence support, there is still a major national security risk facing the country. The geographical positioning of UAE within the Gulf region exposes it to the threat of terrorism which is not experienced directly by the western countries. Even though the conflict with terrorist organizations is led by the United States of America, it is the UAE which faces the greatest risks (John, 2006)[44]. Due to the proactive fight against the growing terrorism influence in the region, UAE has been identified as a partner of the US. Due to this factor, it is not implausible that, due to its close regional proximity, terrorist organizations might consider attacking. Attacks on western countries would be more challenging for terrorist organizations; hence there is a significantly lower national security threat for the US as compared to the UAE.
This growing national security threat has been developing in the UAE has caused a Joint Strategic Military Dialogue initiative has been created. The dialogue has specifically highlighted the scenarios in which the UAE could be directly attacked by the terrorist organizations or other regional entities. In such scenarios the US has vowed to provide strategic military support for the UAE authorities. The Dialogue is not predominantly developed as a reactive strategy, which would be implemented after the large scale attacks have been conducted (Jones, 2007)[45]. Rather the strategy focuses on preventive measures where major threats which are increasing against the country would be highlighted and tempered in an effective manner. Through this strategic relationship, the national risk factors which are present in the UAE would have been alleviated significantly. However the national security objectives of the country consist of numerous complex factors, which cannot be completely dealt with through is initiative. The main objective of the dialogue is to bolster the trust based relation between the two countries. The UAE authorities require assurance from their US counterparts against terrorism threats which have arisen as result of US led anti-terrorism policies. These policies have formed a crucial component of the DCA, whose core requirement was highlighted by the American counterparts. The initiative is based on joint planning and military collaboration between both countries in order to draw attention to the imminent threats which are present for the national security objectives of the UAE (Jones, 2007)[46]. The US authorities have attempted to lessen the growing national security concerns which have been highlighted by the UAE authorities, in the context of the contemporary global environment.
The involvement of the US in the military strategy of the UAE has a significant impact on the overall capability of the UAE security forces. As an influential entity within the Gulf region, UAE has a relatively low military manpower. The UAE forces include approximately 51,000 personnel, and this is not sufficient for the development of an effective military strategy. In the scenario where the country is attacked by terrorist or other entities, the lack of military man power can have a crucial impact on the defense capability of the country. Due to the personnel shortage dilemma which is faced by the UAE authorities, the US has developed the strategy of providing the country with high tech weapon based equipment which requires minimal personal handling (Lee, 2005)[47]. As a part of the Defense pact between the two countries, the US has also provides strategic planning support to the UAE. In order to cope with the the military personal issue, the UAE has implemented various progressive regulatory initiatives, with the support of the US. The UAE is drafting legislation to set up a new national defense and reserve force to include mandatory military training. These polices are a direct result of the American strategic collaboration efforts which have been developed between both countries. As a strategic partner of the United States, the UAE needs to bolster its military capability, so that it can cope with terrorism and other national security threats which may emerge.
The US has also helped in improving the UAE Air force capability through providing strategic training programs and advanced equipment. The US provides comprehensive air force training programs to more than 350 selected personnel from the UAE, as part of the development initiative. These training initiatives are part of the US sales programs and are predominantly conducted with the UAE counterparts. The US has agreed to supply the latest high tech weaponry to the UAE, in a collaborative effort to enhance the military capability of the country (McKechnie & Grant, 2005)[48]. Hence, the country has embarked on a vast shopping spree which includes various training incentives. The personnel from the UAE forces are selected by the US authorities and provided with the necessary knowhow and training regarding the latest technologies. These training programs not only enhance the ability of the UAE forces to increase their military capabilities, but also assess the effectiveness of the new technologies developed by the US. A mutually beneficial relationship is created between both countries, through which their collaborative strategic goals are obtained. Officers of the U.S. military have recognized that UAE operators of HAWK surface-to-air missile batteries are synchronized with US operators of the system and that UAE fighter pilots demonstrates their combat capability in operations in Libya in 2011.
The forces of the two countries also jointly take part in extensive exercises on areas of early warning, air and missile defense, and logistics, near the Air Warfare Center which is located near the Al Dhafra Airbase. As a result of the strategic training programs and the military intelligence sharing initiatives, the capability of the UAE forces has increased dramatically. The weaknesses present in the UAE military capabilities have had a drastic influence on the foreign and regional policies developed by the country in the past (Moore, 2004)[49]. The pact developed with their US counterparts has alleviated the majority of its military capability dilemmas. The UAE has also established private party contacts in order to bolster its military capabilities. In 2011, the UAE authorities confirmed that they had attained the support of the private military service providers, Reflex Responses in order to enhance the effectiveness of the operational capability of the military personnel. The US conducted large scale investigations to assess the impact of the private contracts that the UAE government had signed with military service providers in order to bolster its strategic military capabilities. The reports however suggested that the majority of the military training services were undertaken by former American military personnel, and hence posed no direct threats to the defense pacts which had been created between both countries (Pearce, 2000)[50].
The overall impact of the DCA on the military capability of UAE has been substantial in nature, as the country has been able to invest in the latest weapons technology and also receive advanced military intelligence support. This is a core objective of the UAE forces, as enhanced military capabilities have allowed the country to gain more influence in the context of the regional socio-political environment. The military strategy of UAE is highly dependent on its strategic relations with the US. The US is the supplier of one of the most advanced military technologies in the global context which has provided the country with the ability to enhance its regional influence. The defense pact between both countries however is not limited to the transference of the military weapons and equipment. The UAE has also gained a high volume of intelligence and training support from the US and the American private military service providers.
This is the most sigfnicant advantage that the UAE has been able to achieve in its strategic relations with the US. Without the support of the US, the country would not have been able to develop its capabilities, which were needed to help it cope in the volatile regional political environment. In the past, countries such as Iran and Iraq have had a sigfnicant impact on the policies developed by the UAE. The DCA on the other hand, was agreed between both countries as a safeguard against the influence of the predominant regional countries. The UAE has been able to enhance the capability of its military personnel, and also has developed various policies to increase the volume of its forces (Punwar & Anani, 2006)[51]. As a sigfnicant stakeholder in the fight against terrorism in the regional and the global context, the country requires a strong military capability. The DCA has allowed the UAE to focus on its core military requirements, and develop national drafting policies which would alleviate the issue of limited military personal.
The UAE has to ensure that it can increase the number of military personnel who are present on a national level, along with investment in advanced weaponry and equipment. The advantage that the US has been able to attain from this strategic pact is the development of a sustainable business relationship in the region, and also gains a strategic location in the Middle Eastern political environment (Qadir, 2005)[52]. As a leader in the fight against terrorism worldwide, the bilateral security arrangement which the US has been able to develop with the UAE has allowed it the access and the strategic support necessary in order to become actively involved in the Gulf region.
3.5 Impact of the Realism Theory
In the context of the contemporary global environment, uncertainty has increased dramatically for various countries. It has become more challenging for these countries to maintain their national security initiatives, as external threats such as terrorism have increased considerably. In this scenario, the most important source of power which is present for countries can be identified as military power, which can help it either react to the external threats to their environment, or develop a preventive national security policy. Prevention is a very crucial component of the national security attributes of any country, as it ensures that the negative impact of terrorism or other negative external forces is completely avoided. Countries have to tighten their security control and invest in the most advanced military weapons in order to attain these national security objectives (Nasr & Takeyh, 2008)[53]. The economic power which is experienced by countries will not help safeguard them from external threats which are of a substantial nature. This economic power has to be invested in military capabilities development initiatives for the country to ensure that the external threats which are present can be adequately mitigated and controlled.
The comprehensive research activity in this study has highlighted the significance of the military power in the context of the contemporary global socio-political environment. The threats present for the countries in the current scenario have increased significantly, such as the risk of terrorism and also the regional political issues. The UAE has been exposed to high levels of national security threats as a direct result of the security bilateral arrangements with the United States of America. The US foreign policy is highly aggressive in nature and following the evens of September 11 terrorist attacks, it has become a proactive leader in the global fight against terrorism forces. The main reason for the military arrangements that the UAE has developed with the United States, can be identified as the need to achieve their military development objectives. The study has indicated that there were numerous factors present in the regional and international platform for the UAE, which have motivated her to develop strategic military relations with the US. These military relations help the country to develop a real source of power, which is essential in the development of the national security initiatives for this country.
The UAE has been influenced by the volatile regional political framework, and prior to the agreement of the DCA with the US, the country was highly exposed to regional influences. Its military pact with the United States has allowed, the UAE has developed the ability to defend itself from the threat of the external forces (Irvine, 2008)[54]. The growing influence of countries such as Iran has historically been a major concern for the country, and hence the military pact with the US has helped lessen those concerns significantly.
The negative aspect of the military relations that UAE have been able to develop with the US, can be identified as the increased level of regional instability and the exposure to the threats of terrorism. As a strategic ally of the west and the United States, the country has exposed itself to a high level of risk, and hence created numerous national security dilemmas. The security bilateral arrangement with the US, has restricted the scope of the national security objectives of the UAE. This is the tradeoff that the administration of the country has been willing to make, in order to ensure that it can promote its military capabilities. The US not only provides the country with the latest weapons and equipment, it also provides comprehensive military support. There are numerous US military bases located within the UAE, and the US has also agreed to support the country in instances of a direct attack from external forces (Bromley, 2005)[55].
The study has indicated that the UAE administration has been aware of the external threats which are caused directly as a result of these military relations. However, the military capability development is a strategic goal for the country, as it has to bolster this in order to ensure that it can achieve sustainable national security attributes. The United States also provides the country with the socio-economic support in that the UAE has access to develop vast trade relations with the US. Although the military trade is the most sigfnicant form of trade activity between the two countries, there is also a healthy level of trade in other product/services categories (Lindsay & Takeyh, 2010)[56]. The United States can be identified as the global leader in the military and the economic scenarios, and hence military relations with this country have allowed the UAE the ability to gain access to the most advanced military capabilities. The study has indicated that military strength is an unquestionable power source in the highly volatile and complex environment in the contemporary global platform.
The US has been able to utilize its military strength to cope with the threat of terrorism as has been witnessed after the September 11 attacks in the country. Even though the US is an economic super power, it was the military strength possessed by this country, which allowed it to react proactively to the threats from external environments and lead global initiatives against these terrorist forces. The military capabilities of the country provided it with the ability to attack the source of the issues and to maintain a sustainable national security policy. For similar reasons, the UAE has developed security bilateral arrangements with the US, in order to enhance its capability to reduce uncertainty and insecurity within its country and alleviate the security threats which are present in the contemporary regional and the international environment.
5.1 Strategic National Self Defense Objectives
The study has indicated that self-development of the military is a crucial initiative which is adopted by the UAE. In the context of the contemporary global environment, threats from external environments have increased drastically for US and UAE, hence both the UAE along with the US have faced a high level of national security threat posed by terrorist organizations. There is no all-encompassing power that can impose universal rules or even penalize evil actions. Ethical behavior is very dangerous since it can emasculate a country’s ability to protect itself from an attack (Forstenlechner & Mellahi, 2011)[57]. The intercontinental arrangement itself pushes countries to use soldierly force and to go to war. Even though leaders may be decent, they should not let ethical apprehensions direct their foreign policy. Countries have to be able to develop the capabilities which would provide them with the skills to cope with external environment threats and hence achieve their strategic socio-economic goals (Furia & Lucas, 2006)[58]. This is the primary reason why the UAE has developed its security bilateral arrangements with the US, as it provides greater influence on the regional power stage, and the ability to actively fight off terrorist or external security threats.
5.2 Significance of Transnational Societies & Laws
The study has also indicated that the actual power of transnational societies and their laws are predominantly based on the assent of the involved stakeholders. If countries that are involved in transnational acts decide to abide by the provisions of the arrangements, only then can these policies be effective in nature. In the real world scenario, this is not always the case as various countries on certain occasions transgress the transnational laws and policies for their self-interest (Al-Kandari & Gaither, 2011)[59]. This component in the US and the UAE security bilateral arrangements can be identified as a crucial threat to the national security of the UAE. The bilateral arrangements between both countries would only exist as long as they are mutually beneficial and both countries decide to abide by the arrangements. In the scenario where the arrangement is no longer in the interest of the either or both of the involved stakeholders, there is a potential risk that the arrangement could be terminated.
The study has indicated that there are numerous factors which threaten the foreign relation partnership between the UAE and the US. Although both countries are able to mutually benefit from the arrangement, there are certain issues where there are core ideological conflicts. The involvement of the US in the Israeli-Palestine conflict can be identified as such a threat to the security bilateral arrangement between both countries (Vivoda, 2009)[60]. The US has been a historic supported of the Israeli regime, and has provided this country with vast military and the intelligence support. The majority of the Arab countries on the other hand hold a negative opinion regarding the role of the US in this dilemma. The UAE has directly criticized the role of the US in this conflict, stating that its response is biased towards the Israeli regime. This ideological conflict has the potential of becoming a major dilemma between both countries that could eventually threaten the military pacts and its arrangements.
Over time, the dependency of the UAE on the military and security relations developed with the US and the rest of the western counterparts has increased. Hence, in this scenario termination of these relations between the two countries could have substantial impacts on the national security interests of the UAE. The UAE receives the majority of its military equipment and technology from the US, and also has provided its partner with various military bases (Furtig, 2004)[61]. The UAE also sends it military personnel to the US in order to undergo strategic military training in order to enhance their core capabilities. A reduction in the military relations between both countries would hence result in a very undesirable scenario for the UAE, as its national security policy would be negatively impacted. This comprehensive research study has indicated that this is the reason that the UAE has not proactively become involved the Palestine-Israeli conflict, as it would have a negative impact on its relations with the US. To have done otherwise would have led to the UAE having to significantly reduce its dependence on the US for their military support, in order to ensure that UAE could maintain its own national security objectives on a self-sufficient basis.
Although there are many constructive partnerships existing between other institutions of UAE and US Such as health care, education, culture, business, energy and media, There is a literature gap in the area of bilateral relations and the UAE security. Researches have been done to study effects of these bilateral arrangements. David (2008)[62] studied the Warning Signs for the United States’ Middle East Free Trade Area Strategy (MEFTA) and reports that the push by the US to establish a system of regional trade blocs as part of a policy of global political controlled networks will have eventual consequences. Terril (2006)[63] studied the regional fears of western primacy and the future of the US-Middle eastern basing policy. He reported that the challenge for the United States was in supporting its allies and its national interests without adding to its already serious difficulties in the region through actions which inadvertently supported the growth of radicalism in the area (Terril 2006). Pomper (2010)[64] studied the change and continuity of US International Nuclear Energy Policy. He noted a difference in priority between the current and previous adminstartions. With the current US adminstartion, nuclear energy policy is clearly not as high a priority as it was for the preceeding authority. (Pomper 2010). These few studies show a skewed interest on the social-economic development. A gap in literature therefore exists in there areas of how US military relations with UAE has affected the secutiy of the latter.
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction to Chapter
A comprehensive research activity was implemented in this study, in order to attain critical analysis of the impact of the US-UAE bilateral security arrangements on the national security objectives. The US and the UAE have had a substantial history of developing various socio-economic and military arrangements. These arrangements have been formed as a result of the foreign policy objectives of both countries. The US has utilized the bilateral security arrangements in order to find a substantial market for its weapons manufacturing capabilities and also to gain access to the oil manufacturing industry, and finally to impact on the sphere of influence of various Middle Eastern countries.
The UAE on the other hand has been able to utilize the bilateral security arrangements in order to gain the support of the western military and the economic super power. The strategic relations with the United States have allowed the UAE to enhance its influence in regional politics, and also safeguard itself from short term national security threats. These subject areas regarding the US and the UAE are very significant in the context of the contemporary global politics. It is due to this reason that a vast amount of research activities have already been conducted on the subject of the US and the UAE military and the socio-economic relations.
The majority of the findings arrived at in this study were achieved through secondary research tools. However, primary research activity is also relevant for the study which are based on a non-complex subject area and research tools such as surveys, interviews, and focus groups (Denscombe, 2010)[65]. For this research, the majority of authors chosen possessed the necessary information regarding the subject area and hence these individuals were able to provide adequate information regarding the study. In this study however the subject area was highly complex in nature consisting of numerous factors. This is the reason why the secondary reach activity was undertaken, in order to critically analyze the various factors which are associated with the subject area. The bilateral security arrangement present between the US and the UAE has numerous implications on the national security objectives of the UAE. A primary research activity would not have provided the wealth of information needed regarding the numerous factors which are involved in this study. As highlighted, the US involvement in the Gulf region is a very important geopolitical activity, in the context of the contemporary environment. The US involvement in the war against terror and relations with the various Gulf countries has created numerous global implications. It is due to this research that a number of researchers have developed comprehensive studies on the diverse factors associated with the US and UAE relations.
It is due to this reason that a large number of research activities were critically analyzed in order to assess the national security implications which have been created as a direct result of the security bilateral arrangements between the US and the UAE. Primary research activities would have provided a limited scope and hence the relevant information regarding the socio-economic impact of the US-UAE bilateral security arrangement would not have been adequately analyzed.
Another crucial reason why secondary research activities weres utilized in order to attain the core objectives of this study, was the limited knowledge of the overall population regarding the US and UAE relations. The research survey would not have been an adequate tool to achieve the most sigfnicant research findings. It is due to this reason that the findings which were identified from previous research activities, were utilized and amalgamated to develop the core findings of this study. This research approach was crucial to the attainment of the relevant information required to develop the core findings and the strategic recommendations. The secondary research activity also helped provide information regarding the factors impacting the US and the UAE bilateral security arrangements, which were not initially highlighted.
In summary, there are numerous factors including socio-economic, political, military and the human rights which impact on the national security objectives of the UAE. The information required to critically analyze these core factors could not have been attained from the primary research activity, and hence the comprehensive secondary research initiative had to be implemented in this study.
To achieve the core objectives of this study, a combination of qualitative and secondary research methodologies were utilized. The qualitative research activity was conducted based on the case study approach. The cases were based on the impact of the US-UAE bilateral security arrangements on the national security objectives of the country. The dynamics of the foreign relations policy developed by the UAE with the western country, has numerous implications on the regional political framework. The UAE has to appreciate the negative implications of supporting the American international agenda, hence the national security of UAE is impacted by its relations with the US. In this study, two comprehensive case studies were conducted on the impact of the US-UAE bilateral security arrangements on the national security objectives of the UAE. The information regarding the cases were attained from the review of the relevant literature which is present in the various sources.
The core secondary methodology sources which were utilized in this research activity are given as: magazines, books, new paper articles, academic material from the UAE officials and commentators. The most important secondary methodology tool which was utilized in this study can be highlighted as the online research journals. There is a vast amount of information which can be accessed through the internet, which is highly relevant to the subject area. As highlighted, the relations between the US and the UAE, possess a high global socio-political significance. These countries are strategic partners due to the US effort to influence the region and also diminish the threat of terrorism. It is for to this reason that various research has already been conducted in the core dynamics of the US-UAE relations, and its impact on the socio-economic condition of both stakeholders. Numerous online journals were used to construct the comprehensive case studies which highlighted the impact of the bilateral security relations on the national security objectives of the UAE
The case study approach which was based on the secondary research initiative provided the detailed impact on national security of the security bilateral arrangement between the two countries. The case study has also indicated the future strategic directions which have to be undertaken by the UAE, in order to ensure that it can maintain its security and also achieve core socio-economic development. The case study approach was ideal for this study and hence allowed a critical analysis of the subject area. The realism theory was also utilized to conduct the research initiatives, which highlighted the overall impact and the implications of the US-UAE security bilateral arrangements (Milani, 2009)[66]. The realism theory identified the major reason due to which countries seek to develop strategic military relations with other countries and also bolster their defense capabilities.
The theory also helped identify the future strategic direction which the UAE has to follow, in order to ensure that it can maintain stable regional and international relations with the major stakeholders. The comprehensive research activity which consisted of the qualitative and the case study methods helped highlight the core national security issues which confront the UAE, as a direct result of the security bilateral relations with the US. A comprehensive analysis was conducted which evaluated the short term benefits and the long term negative implications of these strategic military and the socio-economic relations.
The methodology that will be used here are the qualitative methodology and case study. There will not be any interviews and surveys. The qualitative aspect of the methodology comes in since a qualitative analysis will be done on the realism theory. This study will also focus on the constraints that arise from the bilateral security agreement.
Data collection
This study will employ reading text from academic material from UAE officials and commentators around the world as the data collection technique. Reading being a secondary source of information has the following disadvantages:
- Impropriety of the data- the collected primary data may have been collected with a different intention. This may make the data you get unhelpful (Denscombe , 2010).
- Inadequate control of the quality of data- the ruling government plus other approved institution usually give the correct data which is not the case always. This lead to inconsistency of the data (Saunders, 2009).
- Time Holdup issues- the information got from the books and other sources may not have a complete synchronization in terms of time.
Data Analysis
Data analysis will be done by process tracing. A step-by-step analysis of the stages of a procedure, used to deliver the inputs, yields, and processes that occur during each stage.
3.5 Case Study – Trade Activity with Iran
3.5.1 Introduction & Historical Context
The UAE has long term historic trade connections with Iran, as both countries have a very close geographic proximity. The countries are located in ideal positions to develop a strategic trade relationship, which would help them achieve mutual socio-economic benefits. The UAE was established in the year 1971; however Iran has had a long history of relations with the Trucial States, going back a millennium (Habibi & Woertz, 2009)[67]. Iran still holds the perception that the gulf region located in these areas is under its span of influence. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was the first Iranian President who attempted to develop formal diplomatic relations between the countries, as his visit to the UAE in the year 2007 demonstrated.
3.5.2 National Security & Economic Implications of US-UAE Relations
The American led sanctions which have been imposed on Iran have had a negative impact on the national security and the socio-economic development objectives of the UAE. The lack of economic development in Iran due to the trade restrictions has impacted the UAE and has further diminished the relations between both countries. The historic trade relationship has a mutually beneficial impact as both countries are able to take advantage of the trade activity. Iran is able to gain access to the vital trade products which it is not able to attain from the global platform due to various trade restrictions. The UAE has been able to benefit from the billions of dollars’ worth of trade activity which occurs at the ports of the country (Blanchard & Kerr, 2009)[68]. The UAE also holds a strategic position for the international trade activity which is conducted by Iran. China has major energy trade relations with Iran, which are valued at more than 15 billion dollars. The majority of the trade activity which Iran conducts with China occurs through the UAE; hence the trade relations with the UAE can be identified as a core economic development factor for Iran. The trade relations which UAE has been able to develop with Iran are predominantly based on the simple model of re-exporting various items. The trade activity is predominantly favored towards the UAE, as in 2010 the UAE exported or re-exported over $9 billion worth of goods to Iran, and only imported $1.12 billion.
Table (1): The Re-Export Partners of UAE in 2010
Source: Ministry of International Cooperation And Development, UAE
The table highlights that Iran was the second most valuable re export partner for the UAE in the year 2010. The most valuable re-export partner was highlighted as India; however the geographic proximity of Iran and UAE provides various benefits to the UAE from the trade relations.
Figure (1): UAE Re-Exports to Iran
Source: Ministry of International Cooperation And Development, UAE
Even with the growing level of concerns regarding the military and nuclear program initiated by Iran, favorable trade relations have continued to develop between both countries, with the UAE re-exports increasing significantly over the years.
There are dual national security implications caused to the UAE, the increased pressure form the US to diminish the trade relations with Iran; can be a substantial economic treat to UAE. As highlighted, the trade activity between Iran and UAE has increased in the recent scenario, even in the presence of tensions caused by the US-UAE relations. In the future scenario the US can increase the pressure on UAE to reduce the socio economic relations with Iran, which is a strong oppose of US policies. The primary impact is the increased volatility in the Iranian administration, caused by the lack of trade and economic growth activity (Haass, 2008)[69]. Iran is a major stakeholder in the Gulf region political framework, and a direct conflict with this country is not in the long term national security interests of the UAE. The country has to develop a more effective foreign relations policy through which it can create a balance between the western and the regional stakeholders. This conflict has been created as a result of the security bilateral arrangements with the United States of America (Katzman, 2010)[70]. The country cannot seek to re-establish the political and the socio-economic relations with Iran in the current scenario, as it would be against the fundamental US foreign policy objectives.
The secondary national security implications which are created for the UAE as a result of the reduction in the lucrative trade relations with Iran can be highlighted as the economic repercussions. Economic growth is essential in the development off a sustainable national security policy of a country. The county requires the relevant financial resources to persistently invest in the latest military technologies and the capability enhancement initiatives, so that it is able to cope with the threats from the external environment. The trade relations which the UAE had developed in the past with Iran provided a substantial amount of financial resources for the country. The country also has numerous socio-cultural relations with Iran as a result of the high number of Iranian immigrants who have made their home in the UAE. The inability to bolster the trade relations with Iran has diminished the ability of UAE to achieve its potential in economic growth. Hence the ability of the country to invest in the military capability enhancement initiatives has been diminished by the lack of trade activities. In order for the country to become self-sufficient in nature, it has to maintain a strong regional trade activity (Grant et Al, 2007)[71]. The dependence on the international trade market has exposed the country to a large number of business risks, which would have been alleviated through the trade activity with the neighboring country of Iran. Hence the bilateral security arrangements with the United States have had a dual negative impact on national security objectives of UAE.
The relations have not only diminished the ability of UAE to bolster its regional trade activity and enhance its ability to invest in the military development initiatives, it has also caused the country to develop a direct conflict with one of the most influential stakeholders present in the Gulf region (Hiebert, 2005)[72]. These national security dilemmas are caused due to the over dependence of the UAE on the US support for its military objective, and the strategic security bilateral arrangements developed between both countries.
3.6 Case Study – UAE Foreign Policy on Israeli/Arab Issue
The Israeli-Palestine conflict remains one of the most crucial elements of the security bilateral arrangement developed between the US and UAE. The conflict was initiated in the year 1948 when the Jewish People’s Council gathered at the Tel Aviv Museum to declare the establishment of a Jewish State. In response to the proclamation of the Jewish settlers to develop an independent nation, the Arab nations decided to lead a joint attack. Armies comprising of Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Iraq all joined forces to lead the attack against the Jewish establishment. The Jewish state possessed the support of the western countries and hence was able to achieve victory in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.
The war ended with the 1949 Armistice Agreements, between Israel and the majority of its neighboring Arab countries (Haddad, 2004)[73]. The Arab countries were coerced by external pressures and overall circumstances to accept the peace agreement; however the conflict had initiated a long standing regional feud. As a result of the wars, numerous Palestinians have been displaced from their homes, and hence had to seek refuge in neighboring Arab countries. The Arab Israeli conflict remains one of the most sigfnicant unresolved issues in the Middle East, which has the potential of developing into a large scale dilemma. The influence of the Israeli forces has increased in the context of the recent history, as the country has exponentially invested in the military forces (Ulrichsen, 2009)[74]. Meanwhile, the western countries have proactively supported the long term objectives of the Israel and have provided direct/indirect assistance to it.
3.6.2 Impact on the US-UAE Relations
The Arab Israeli conflict has developed various differences among the strategies of the US and the UAE administrations. The UAE has proactively called for a just and objective division of the disputed land which is involved in the conflict, and has also indirectly criticized the role of the US for its excessive support of Israel. This conflict of state opinions was highlighted in the year 2011, as the UAE backed the decision of Palestine to achieve statehood recognition at the United Nations. The US had developed a policy of keeping the regional dilemma outside of the international political arena, and hence had been against the statehood ambitions of Palestine (El-Hokayem & Legrenzi, 2006)[75]. The administration of the US believed that UN recognition would further enhance the complexity of the issue, and could lead to further advancement of the conflict. This fundamental difference of opinions has been highlighted in various incidents in the long history of relations between the countries.
The major issue highlighted by the UAE and the rest of the Arab countries is the unequal support which is provided by western nations to one of the stakeholders involved in the conflict. Even though the United States is identified as a core and long term military strategic partner for the UAE, support for the Palestinian cause is identified as the core ideological differences between the two countries. The Arab countries have a unified perception that enhancement of the Israeli influence in the region would have dire consequences for the Muslim countries. The Arab countries have also criticized the role of the western countries in enabling the Israeli administration to commit various illegal and unethical activities. They have suggested that the western countries have not implemented relevant measures against the Israeli forces for breaking international laws, and have still persisted to support Israel. In the year 2008 and 2009 the UAE forces again highlighted their reservations about the US involvement in the Palestinian conflict (Jarrah, 2006)[76].
The UAE was against the use of excess power and military force by the Israeli forces, and also allowed street demonstrations for the support of the Hamas forces within the country, during the war against Israel. This initiative was completely against the foreign policy objective of the United States, as Hamas is identified as a terrorist organization. The support of the UAE for the conflict is a major concern for the foreign policy goals of America in the region. The UAE also initiated an inquiry in the year 2010, regarding the killing of a Hamas leader who had relocated to Dubai. After a comprehensive investigation process the country formally accused Israel of murdering the Hamas leader. The attack on the Hamas leadership was identified by the UAE as a part of the Israeli objective to destabilize the region, and weaken the position of the Palestinian forces. In their condemnation of Israel the UAE also indirectly criticized the role of the western countries.
The Palestinian-Israeli conflict is a major dilemma which threatens the strategic relations present between the US and UAE. This issue has the potential of developing serious ideological differences between the two countries, and hence could lead to the termination of the security bilateral arrangements. The other national security threat which is present for the UAE can be identified as the growing influence of Israel in the region, who has negative relations with the majority of the Arab countries. In order to alleviate this potential national security threat the UAE has sought to reduce the political tensions caused by this dilemma. The UAE however has not been highly proactive in direct condemnation of the US, and the involvement of the country in the escalation of the conflict (Toledo, 2006)[77]. The UAE has distanced itself from the initiative by Arab countries to seek a peaceful solution to the conflict. King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia on the other hand has been highly proactive in the effort to develop a just solution for the Palestinian/Israeli conflict.
There is an ideological difference present between both countries, regarding the future objectives of the regional political framework (Al Abed et Al, 2005)[78]. The US has developed a policy of continuing to support the growth and the development of Israel, and would not diminish the military relations between itself and Israel. Over the years, the US has provided Israel with the latest technological military equipment and personnel support, due to which the country has been able to increase its influence in the regional political framework (Cohen, 2009)[79]. This threat has the potential of eventually terminating the security bilateral arrangements between the US and the UAE, hence creating a massive national security dilemma as UAE is highly dependent on the US for its military and socio-economic growth objectives.
4.1 The Future National Security Dilemmas for the UAE
In the future scenario, the leaders of the UAE have identified that they need to make strategic military pacts and relations with the powerful stakeholders to ensure their national security enhancement. The regional politics and the national security attributes of the country are directly dependent on the actions taken by the powerful stakeholders. Countries such as Iran and America have a major stake in the national security strategy developed by the UAE. The US is one of the most influential economies present in the world, with vast military resources. Strategic relations with the US allow UAE to gain access to state of the art high tech weapons. These weapons allow the country to be able to enhance its influence in the context of the regional politics. The relations with the US not only provide the country with advanced military weapons, but also with training and intelligence support. The tradeoff present for the UAE in these relations with the US, can be identified as the support for the US led initiatives (Salama, 2006)[80]. The American policy in the Middle Eastern region is highly aggressive in nature. As a strategic partner of the US, the UAE has to activity support and participate in the initiatives developed by the US forces.
The support for the US led initiatives in the Middle East and the global scenario, can create regional national security dilemmas for the UAE. Similar to the US, Iran also enjoys sigfnicant influence in the national security objectives of the UAE in the future scenario. The UAE has to ensure that it can develop an effective foreign policy, through which it would be able to cope with the pressure of the Iranian regime. The UAE have been highly active in the acquisition of the latest weaponries in order to promote their military capability; however investment in the military equipment would not ensure the national security objectives for the country (Toledo, 2006)[81]. The fact of the matter still remains that the national security objectives of the UAE are directly impacted by the actions of countries such as Iran and the US. While the US is one of the most influential global entities which can provide the country with a vast military expertise, the threat from the Iranian government is also present in the regional context. As the US is a western country, it has a lower regional influence in the Middle East as compared to Iran. Therefore support for the US strategies and polices causes the UAE to develop negative relations with Iran. The UAE has to develop a long term strategy through which it can balance the relation with the western super power and the regional stakeholders (Al Abed et Al, 2005)[82].
This balance of the foreign policy would ensure that the UAE is able to protect its national security interests and hence achieve the sustainable socio-economic development. The UAE leaders have identified the geopolitical challenges which are present for the country in the future scenario. This is the reason why the various UAE political leaders have raised concerns regarding the development of a more stable and balanced foreign policy. The immediate negative relations with Iran are detrimental to the growth and the development objectives of the UAE, and can result in various national security dilemmas. The country has however realized that its partnership with the US is essential in the development of a stable security environment in the country. The regional political stakeholders have a very uneven foreign policy which can have a detrimental impact on the national security of the UAE.
Strategic relations with the US would allow the UAE not only to attain the relevant weapons and equipment, which are required to enhance its military capability, rather it would also be able to attain socio-economic support. The bilateral relations developed with the US have also resulted in the lucrative socio-economic growth opportunities for the country, which are also essential to the long term national goals (Al Tamimi & Kelly, 2006)[83]. The US has the capability to influence the actions undertaken by Iran, and provide the crucial assistance to UAE. This is the reason why the country took the decision to become a strategic partner of the US and hence supported the various policies and strategies developed by the US in the Middle East region. With the military support provided by the US, the UAE could counter the influence of Iran in the Middle Eastern region.
4.2 Collaborative Fighting Capabilities
The development of a highly decentralized and politicized military procurement process being implemented it the UAE has resulted in various collaboration challenges with the rest of the allies present in the region (Cohen, 2009)[84]. Countries such as Oman and Saudi Arabia have also faced military alignment dilemmas in the past. One concrete example is that of Saudi Arabia and Oman for instance who operate the Bradley and the Chieftain tanks respectively. This weaponry has completely different configurations to those operated by the UAE. This lack of collaboration enhances the national security risk which is present in these countries respectively and the regional alliance as a whole. These countries have to develop an aligned military strategy which would take advantage of the military strengths and the weaknesses of the major allies. The lack of collaboration and political dialogue which is present within these allied countries have caused many future national security dilemmas.
In the past, the UAE administration has considered acquiring military weapons from Russia which would help attain the enhanced military collaboration within the major regional stakeholders (Shalhoub, 2006)[85]. The country sought to invest in the Russian S-300V air defense system, which was also planned to be installed by the strategic regional partners. The US however highlighted various issues with this military technology and relations developed with Russia. However, as a military partner of the US, the UAE faced issues in acquiring military technology from Russia which does not have positive relations with America. The US also stated that the Russian air defense system lacked the friend or foe identification system, which would not be able to identify US carriers. In short the US administration was against the initiative developed by the UAE to attain the technology form Russia, as it could have negative implications on its own operations in the region.
The US has developed a vast number of military bases in the Gulf region (In Kuwait, Qatar and Bahrain) and the Russian developed air defense system would have compromised the safety of the American personnel. These are the challenges facing the UAE in determining its military strategy as it seeks to collaborate with the regional stakeholders (Nasr & Takeyh, 2008)[86]. The UAE has to ensure that its military strategy is aligned with American interests, and the nature of the national security objectives is directly dependent on this strategic relation between both countries. The military pact that has developed between the two countries is a driving force in the military trade relations which the UAE has been able to develop with the global stakeholders. Although the country faces restrictions in the acquisition of the military technology form the various regions of the world, it is however able to attain the most advanced technology from the US. America is the major supplier of military technology to the UAE, and it has superior military capabilities. Hence the relations with the US, although restricting some of the military trade relations of the UAE, has also provides the country with access to the latest military technologies. In order to enhance the regional compatibility of the Gulf countries, the UAE have to enhance the political and the military relations, and develop a holistic defense strategy (Irvine, 2008)[87].
The UAE government entities have heavily invested in the most latest technological innovations which require expert handling and maneuvering skills. The majority of the personnel who have to operate this technical equipment are not able to fully utilize the maximum capability of the weaponry and the handling risks are also increased (Bromley, 2005)[88]. In order to adequately cope with these growing issues, the UAE administrative entities have to develop a military drafting system. This drafting system which is implemented in many western countries, helps maintain an adequate population of national military personnel. The UAE has to prioritize the military growth objective and develop a balance between the investment in the military equipment and the enhancement of the drafting system. In the future, the lack of military personnel will create a major national security dilemma for the country, as the UAE would not be able to develop an effective military capability without this. The dilemma regarding the insufficient number of military personnel has been present in the country for a long period of time. The country has been unable to develop a sustainable strategy to cope with this dilemma, hence has been reliant on external support. Throughout recent history, the involvement of the US in the national security measures of the country has increased. However, dependence on the external stakeholders can also be identified as a major national security risk.
4.3 Strategic Geopolitical Positioning
The geopolitical positioning of UAE is very favorable in the context of the future national security implications. The country does not face an immediate threat of invasion, neither is it weak financially. The country is in a very favorable economic position, hence it can invest in future military development programs and it can also bolster the various business industries (Lindsay & Takeyh, 2010)[89]. The economic attributes of a country have a sigfnicant impact on its national security objectives. In the context of the contemporary global environment, countries have to persistently invest in the latest military technologies so that they can cope with the external security threats. The major stakeholders within the region have significantly enhanced their military programs, however the capability of the terrorist organizations has also been enhanced in the current scenario. In order to cope with these challenges the UAE administration has to ensure that it can continue to adequately invest in military development initiatives. The strategic partnership with the US allows the UAE to manage the security threats. The historical rivalries which have plagued growth and collaboration within the region have been somewhat alleviated in the context of recent history. Abu Dhabi and Dubai have had a history of developing rivalries which negatively impacted on the socio-economic relations (Stern, 2006)[90]. The internal issues which are present within the country can enhance the risk present in the external environment. The regional leaders have now however realized that they have to reach for common goals in a collaborative manner in order to diminish the national security threats to which their country is exposed.
The UAE also faces various socio-economic dilemmas as the economy historically has been predominantly based on the oil sector. Abu Dhabi has invested significantly in the development of the non-oil based sector and now invests in diverse industries. The dependence on the oil based sector can cause the country to be susceptible to the volatility of external market trends. The UAE as a whole has been able to lessen the issues associated with the dependence on oil and has developed other business areas. Economic growth is an essential component of the national security objectives of UAE. In this respect, Abu Dhabi has undertaken mass privatization initiatives in the past in order to reduce its dependence on the volatile oil based sector. The development of the diverse industries in the country can allow the UAE to become more self-dependent in nature (Forstenlechner & Mellahi, 2011)[91]. Over the years however, the country has not been able to adequately diminish its dependence on the United States for the military support and the development initiatives.
The UAE has to invest adequately in the business sector, so that it can control the external environment. In order to increase the ability of the country to ensure its national security objectives in the future, it has to lever the military capability and also develop diverse economic alternatives. Although the dependence on the United States of America for the vast military and the socio-economic support is essential to the immediate national security objectives of the country, the UAE also has to focus on its long term goals. These goals could be attained through the development of regional diplomatic agreements. The strategic partnership with the US has caused the UAE to foster negative and aggressive relations with various strong regional stakeholders. This strategy is not sustainable in the long term scenario, and hence the country has to look forward to developing greater regional diplomatic relations (Furia & Lucas, 2006)[92]. This objective can only be possible as the country reduces its overall dependence on the United States for military and socio-economic support.
4.4 Immigrant Dependent Business Sector
Over the past few years, the UAE has become a popular destination for temporary labor migrants looking for employment opportunities and higher living standards. In 2013, the country had the fifth-largest migrant stock in the world amounting to 7.8 million migrants (out of a total population of 9.2 million), according to United Nations (UN) estimates. With immigrants, mainly from India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, comprising of over 90 percent of the country’s private workforce, the UAE attracts both low and high skilled migrants due to its economic attractiveness, relative political stability, and modern infrastructure (Malit and Youha 2013)[93]
This high level of dependence on the immigrant population within the business sector, exposes UAE to challenging national security threats (Furtig, 2004)[94]. There is a high volume of immigration movement, which occurs within the country on a persistent basis. The nature of their occupation requires individuals within the business community to travel from and within the country, and hence this phenomenon exposes the UAE to the threat of external and internal terrorism activities. The changing UAE policy to align with US foreign policy also affects the immigration policies, hence the business environment. The US has sought to reduce this terrorism risk caused by the high level of immigrant migration in the UAE through the development of special inspection bases at the UAE ports, which have the capability of identifying any terrorist threat present within the US based exports (Davidson, 2009)[95]. The UAE faces the dilemma of alleviating the national security threats posed by the high level of immigration within the in the country, due to the dependence of the national economy on this immigrant sector. The business framework of the country is highly interlinked with the immigrant population, which is present in the various industries of the country. The country cannot significantly alter the immigration policy as this would have a crucial impact on the industrial sector and the national economy as a whole. The enhancement of the economy is also an essential attribute of the country in its quest to bolster its national security.
The UAE should develop a strategy through which it can improve the internal security processes without having a negative impact on the business sector. The threat posed by the high level of immigration activity within the country heightened following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States. These attacks have also exploited the US transportation network which has allowed large scale terrorist activities to be conducted. Following the international trend after these events, the UAE has enhanced its border control system in order to reduce illegal immigration activity, which poses a major national security threat. Along with the development of this stringent policy, the country also has increased the verification process of the overall immigration process. The documentation requirements for both internal and external travel have been increased due to which the UAE administration has been able to develop a greater control of its security network. Investment in the latest verification and surveillance technology has been identified as the most effective strategy by the UAE administration, to help reduce the impact of internal and external national security threats.
The UAE remains one of the few countries present in the world which is predominantly dependent on an immigrant population for the development of its industrial and business sector. The country cannot therefore develop immigration policies which are so stringent that they would have a negative implication of economic development (McInnis, 2005)[96]. In the last decade this population has persistently increased, up till the year 2008 when the UAE government tightened its immigration policies. In addition, asylum seekers were also denied the opportunity to enter the country, as the UAE already possessed a large population of non-national individuals. The national security threat which is created by the high level of this population can be identified as a terrorism risk.
Figure (2): UAE Population Imbalance (National & Non National)
Source: National Bureau of Statistics
It is very difficult for the UAE administration to adequately identify the affiliations of the large number of immigrant workers and their associations with terrorist organizations. The country has to maintain relatively open borders hence verification of the actual numbers of the complete immigrant population is a very challenging task (Chapman & Khanna, 2006)[97].
4.5 The Recent Camp David Summit
In the latest conference (Camp David Summit with Gulf counties), one of the most significant accomplishments of the summit is the strong US restatement of its“ironclad” commitment to Gulf security against external threats. While some GCC states, particularly the UAE, strongly hinted that they like a formal mutual defense treaty with the United States, U.S. officials stated clearly in the run-up to the summit that there is no such new treaty obligation on the table. Apart from the administration’s own reservations, Congress is not likely to approve, and the public is likely to strongly reject, new U.S. military arrangements in the Middle East. (Ibish 2015)[98]. Therefore, according to all reports, the question of a mutual defense treaty was not raised by either side at the summit. Instead, the United States strongly held firmly its long-standing informal and policy-based commitment to Gulf security.
The top-most achievement of the recent summit is the accomplishment of a detailed framework that structures the ongoing dialogue between the two sides both thematically and chronologically. The parties establish a series of committees and work groups, some of which operate within the existing U.S.-GCC Strategic Cooperation Forum, and some of which add a new dimension to the talk. A Forum Working Group, for example, will have to be tasked with developing joint efforts that ensure security in bouderies, prevent financing of terrorism, enhance cyber-security, and ensure critical protection of infrastructure. The parties also have established a senior working group that examines potential U.S. cooperation with the Arab League plan so as to establish a “unified Arab force” that will deal with peacekeeping and stabilization efforts in member states that request assistance
These plans are perhaps the most significant results of the summit because they give structure and form to the dialogue between U.S and the GCC, ensuring that the conversation is not ad hoc or chaotic. Some of the new structures go well beyond the existing forum, and have their most significant iteration in the commitment of the two sides to “meet again in a similar high level format in 2016,” reportedly somewhere to be determined in the Gulf region. These commitments send a number of clear messages. The United States, by formalizing and giving even greater structure to the dialogue, is acknowledging the importance and centrality of this partnership (Ibish, 2015)
While there are some important issues that remain unresolved and strains exist in the partnership between US and GCC, an unexpected progress has been made at the recent summit in Camp David. This repairs relations and creates a new framework for stronger cooperation in future. Washington and its partners in the Gulf Arab appears to have established an important set of structures for moving forward through both existing and enhanced new forums for dialogue, timelines, working groups and committees, and other formats that have given a new shape and specificity to their dialogue. Moreover, in mutually embracing the agenda of developing independent and self-reliant Gulf and Arab defense and national security mechanisms and military institutions, the United States and the GCC countries have identified a guiding principle around which to organize their long-standing project of ensuring Gulf security.
Gulf states have decided to seek another summit meeting in one, rather than two, years. This sends a strong signal that the GCC came away from the meetings with a more positive view of US administration than they may have previously held. This new depth, breadth, and detail of the frameworks for dialogue, coordination, and cooperation established at the summit gives the US-GCC relationship a solid framework for developing into the foreseeable future.
The Gulf states are not be entirely convinced by U.S. reassurances about the status of all aspects of U.S. policies toward the region, but they look pleased by Washington’s insistence that there is no inclination towards Iran involved in the negotiations or offered as a consequence of a successful agreement. Moreover, Gulf officials maintain that their states would lean towards Iran if Tehran is to significantly modify its aggressive policies. The primary Gulf concern was, and still is, that Iran may somehow acquire (or have already acquired) greater U.S. acquiescence (or at least less U.S. opposition) to its ambitious regional policies without having to modify them in any substantive way. But given the range of commitments offered to the GCC states, it has become harder to see the United States as seeking an alliance or understanding with Tehran as a substitute for traditional friendships (Ibish 2015)
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH ANALYSIS
The comprehensive case studies have indicated that the security bilateral arrangements that the UAE has been able to develop with the US, have resulted in various national security threats. The most sigfnicant national security dilemma that the country faces can be identified as the threats which are created in the context of the regional political framework. The country has had a sigfnicant history of developing strong trade relations with Iran, however recent US led sanctions have substantially diminished this trade activity. The trade relations which the UAE possessed with Iran were highly beneficial for the country, and hence sanctions have created a sigfnicant economic dilemma for the country (Davidson, 2009)[99]. The US has very confrontational relations with Iran and hence has encouraged the UAE to develop similar relations with the country.
Iran is however a very important stakeholder in terms of the regional political environment and possesses substantial military capabilities. There are vast national security implications associated with the reduction in the trade earnings of the UAE, which it used to attain from the transactions with Iran. In the case of direct military conflicts with Iran, the UAE faces a substantial national security threat. The US has placed strategic military basses within the country to alleviate the threat of a direct attack on the country; however further depletion of diplomatic relations between the UAE and Iran could lead to a direct conflict situation. The secondary impact of the depletion of the trade activities between the UAE and Iran as a result of the US intervention can be identified as the loss of economic opportunities. The UAE predominantly re-exported various products to Iran, which Iran was not able to acquire independently. The UAE has a vast Iranian immigrant population and there is a significant portion of the business community who are of Iranian origin. Hence in UAE there exists substantial tacit support for Iran. A reduction in foreign relations between both countries could cause sigfnicant political and socio-cultural unrest within the country and lead to a national security dilemma.
This paper has also highlighted a national security threat to the UAE due to ideological differences with the US. The Israeli-Palestine conflict has the potential of creating long term dilemmas between the two countries, and hence threatens the future of the military relations. The US is a long term supporter of the Israeli regime and has provided the country with sustainable military and socio-economic assistance. The Arab countries are unified in their support for the Palestinian cause, and hence have voiced their criticisms of the western and US policies regarding the conflict (Chapman & Khanna, 2006)[100]. The comprehensive case studies indicated that there is risk present for the UAE, which may cause the US to terminate the strategic military pacts and arrangements. There is a conflict of interests which exists in the foreign policies of both countries, and hence the dependence of the UAE on the US military support can lead to long term national security implications. The cases have indicated that the security bilateral arrangements developed with the US have created certain restrictions and challenges for the national security objectives of UAE.
5.3.1 Limitations on UAE National Security by ‘the US-UAE Bilateral Security Arrangements’
The comprehensive research study has highlighted the future national security dilemmas and threats which are present for the UAE. The bilateral security arrangements developed with the US have created numerous national security implications for the country, for which it has to develop a sustainable national security policy. The ability of the country to develop a balance between its international foreign relations policy with that of its regional policy arrangements would help it ensure long term national security. The main objective of the relations which the UAE has built up with the US was to develop a greater influence in regional politics. Prior to the DCA the UAE suffered from the volatile political influences which were present in the Gulf region (Keane & McGeehan, 2008)[101]. The country was not able to develop a strategic policy which would help it cope with the pressure exerted from countries such as Iran and Iraq. The main consequence of the DCA and the strategic alliance with the US can be identified as a greater UAE military presence and the increased influence of the county in the regional political framework.
The US had a similar interest in the region, where it wanted to exert a direct impact on the regional stakeholders and the terrorist organizations. The UAE has had to develop a highly proactive and aggressive foreign policy in order to carry out the objectives which have been developed in a collaborative manner with the US. The country has had to take a proactive stance on the growing terrorist forces in the region, so that it would be able to sustain its defense pact with the US. Although this strategy has been very effective in the short term scenario, as the UAE has become highly proactive in the regional politics, it has also created various national security implications. It has become extremely difficult for the country to develop a sustainable regional foreign policy which is aligned with the national interests of the UAE and also maintain strategic arrangements with the US. The aggressive military strategies of the UAE against other countries and terrorist organizations present in the region have created a controversial image of the country. Terrorist organizations have identified the UAE as a strategic partner of the US, and hence the country faces a substantial terrorism threat (Verrastro & Ladislaw, 2007)[102]. The country also has to face restrictions against trade and socio-political relations with certain countries in the region. As the partner of the US, the country has to alter its regional foreign policy, which has complex implications of the national security interests of the UAE.
5.3.2 Impact on the Iran-UAE Relations
Iran and the UAE have an unresolved dispute over three small islands in the Persian Gulf. Iran occupied the islands of Abu Musa, Greater Tunb, and Smaller Tunb in November 1971, a month before the British withdrawal from the Persian Gulf and the creation of the UAE as an independent nation. At that point the emirate of Sharjeh claimed sovereignty over Abu Musa, while the emirate of Raas-al-Kheimah claimed the Tunb islands. As Sharjeh and Raas-al-Kheimah became part of the UAE, the islands dispute evolved into an Iran-UAE dispute that is yet to be resolved. In spite of the dispute, Iran and the UAE have maintained diplomatic relations in the past three decades, and the UAE has emerged as one of Iran’s largest trade partners (Habibi 2010)[103]
The strategic relations with Iran have a significant impact of the socio-economic and the national security objectives of UAE. Although political tensions have existed in the past between the two countries, the development of a diplomatic relationship would have a beneficial impact on the UAE. It has not been possible to develop diplomatic relations with Iran as a direct result of UAE’s bilateral security arrangement with the US. One of the main foreign policy objectives of the US in the Middle East is to diminish the control and the influence of Iran (Russell, 2005)[104]. It is due to this reason the US has developed direct and indirect policies to economically impact the Iranian administration. The Iranian nuclear ambitions are the major reasons for the conflicts with the US. The UAE has also backed the operations of the US which are targeted towards the reduction of Iran’s nuclear proliferation ambitions.
The Iranian government authorities have also voiced their direct opposition to various US foreign policy initiatives. As a result of strategic relations with the US, the UAE has had to support the American policies designed specifically against Iran. This has created a regional challenge for the UAE which already has numerous socio-economic and also national security dilemmas. UAE officials have developed a long term strategy to reduce the security tensions which exist between them and Iran. Although the defense relations with the US play a major role in the political ambitions of the UAE, the threat of regional security challenges also have to be alleviated. This is the reason why UAE officials have welcomed the 2013 Interim Nuclear Agreement in order to lower these tensions.
The UAE has fully supported the sanctions which have been applied on Iran, as a result of its concern about Iran’s nuclear program. The UAE however would prefer a reduction in the sanctions which have been placed on Iran, which would result in an increase in the regional trade activity. The major impact of the UAE’s role in the policies against Iran is the national security threat which is created for the country (Hallams & Schreer, 2012)[105]. However there is also a crucial economic impact which has been created due to the American influenced policy of the UAE. This socio-economic factor has a major impact on the ability of the UAE to generate substantial trade activity.
Development of positive relations with Iran is a core national security objective of the UAE. The American led sanctions which have been applied on Iran have created an impasse between the two nations. In turn, the economic dilemmas experienced by Iran have caused this country to expand its military capabilities. The aggressive policies developed by America and its allies have pushed Iran into becoming highly uncertain of its own national security. The relations which are present between the UAE and the US have caused Iran to identify UAE as a potential security threat. This political and military tension in the region is not beneficial for the long term objectives of UAE. The country not only has to focus on its global foreign policy which is based on relations with the western world, but also has to bolster its regional relationships. The greatest national security threat which is present for the UAE is based on the regional politics and the security factors (Luethold, 2004)[106]. The enhanced economic pressure which is applied on Iran by US, and UAE’s persistent support of US based policies against Iran, have created numerous national security dilemmas for the UAE. The lack of socio-economic growth which is caused by the sanctions imposed by the western countries could increase the volatility of the Iranian administration. This volatility can lead to the development of aggressive regional strategies, and hence the UAE can experience the potential negative implications.
The economic growth of Iran plays a major role in the economic and the national security objectives of the UAE. In the matter of the UAE’s national security, the economic growth in Iran could lead to an expansion of its military armaments, whether in buying new weapons and acquiring new system, or even use the economic thrive in supporting its nuclear program. Following the tightening of the 2010 sanctions on Iran, its trading activity with the UAE has decreased significantly from the previous volume of 23 billion US dollars to only 4 billion dollars.
The UAE is driven by its commitment to the United States of America to implement the aggressive policy towards Iran. The deterioration of the socio-economic links with Iran is not in the national interest of the UAE. UAE officials have realized the strategic impact of diplomatic and stable relations with Iran on the sustainable national security health of the country. The recent reductions in the Iran-UAE relations have negatively impacted the economic growth factors of the UAE. In addition the lack of economic growth which is suffered by Iran due to sanctions could increase its volatility and could in turn exponentially increase the national security challenge faced by the UAE. On the other hand, enhanced relations between the US and Iran will benefit the UAE in the matter of its regional trade relations.
The US administration has highlighted the economic dependence of Iran on the UAE, and hence has encouraged the UAE to stifle the Iranian economic activity (Habibi & Woertz, 2009)[107]. The UAE has been identified as a strategic partner of the US, which can be used to enhance the economic restrictions which are imposed on Iran. The regional trade activity has a crucial impact on the economy of Iran; hence the US has urged its strategic partners within the UAE to diminish the trade relations with Iran. In 2010, UAE was obliged to implement the complete restrictions outlined in the U.N. Security Council Resolution 1929, within its banking system. In the year 2012, the Noor Islamic Bank, which Iran used to process much of its receipts of hard currency for its oil sales internationally, stated that it would no longer conduct any transactions involving Iran. As an extension of the US pressure which is present on the UAE, the country has also diminished the influence of the Iranian banks which are operating in the country such as Bank Saderat and Bank Melli predominantly conducting cash based transactions, and their activities are highly restricted.
The UAE has also led a joint effort with the other countries present within the Gulf bloc, to decrease the dependence on Iran’s oil. This initiative is also encouraged by the US, in an effort to weaken the economic position of Iran. The UAE has developed the policy of offering countries which are importing Iranian oil, with a better alternative. This initiative has significantly weakened the economic positioning of Iran, and hence has created a major national security dilemma for the UAE (Terrill, 2011)[108]. There is a strong opposition present within the UAE against this aggressive policy which has been adopted in the regional context. The UAE representatives state that they have to develop a strategic perspective and create policies which would encourage regional security. An economically weak Iran on the other hand, could eventually create an enhanced national security threat for the UAE. Even though the UAE government entities have openly restricted their economic ties with Iran, various oil firms have developed minimal trade relations with the country.
These trade activities can be penalized under the Iran Sanctions Act, and legal actions can be taken against the relevant organizations. Various firms have been penalized under the provision of this act for supplying low levels of oil to their Iranian counterparts. The aggressive policies which the UAE has developed regarding Iran in recent times are the direct result of the US involvement. Iran is significantly dependent on economic relations with the UAE and as a result restrictions of this trade activity could increase volatility in the region. In terms of the regional politics and security objectives, diplomatic relations between UAE and Iran are very important (Rustow, 1977)[109]. The increase in regional political instability and the enhanced national security threat can be identified as one of the major negative implications of the US-UAE bilateral security arrangements. Various firms within the UAE are interested in developing strategic economic relations with the Iranian business community, however they are unable to develop these relations due to the US oriented policies.
The development of positive business relations between the UAE and Iran would not only invigorate economic relations between both countries, but would also have a positive impact on the political tensions. Business relationships can help UAE initiate diplomatic relations between both countries which would significantly reduce the national security threat which is present for the country. Iran is a major stakeholder in the regional politics, and hence the development of diplomatic ties is essential for UAE. However due to US involvement in the regional foreign policy of the UAE, the country is unable to strengthen the socio-economic and the diplomatic relations with Iran.
The comprehensive research study has highlighted the strategic dependence of the UAE on the US in order to promote UAE’s military capabilities. The UAE leaders realized that they required the assistance of the western superpowers to enhance their influences in the context of the regional politics, and to safeguard themselves from external threats. The UAE has been provided with core military weapons and equipment from the US, however as a result it also has had to align itself with the foreign policy objectives of the US. The study indicates that the decision to develop military relations with the US is not a decision taken to assert its agression in becoming more military capable; rather the most important motivation for the UAE is to develop its self-defence capabilities (Cordesman, 2003)[110].
It is due to the self-defence objectives that the UAE has also allowed the US significant access to various ports and regions in the country, through which UAE could be provided with the direct support of the US forces in cases of imminent attack. The immigration policy of the country also exposes it to a high level of national security threat, as is highlighted in the study. These threats have increased the requirement of the country to bolster its self-defence capabilities and ensure that it can achieve its strategic socio-economic objectives. The self-defence objectives of the country cannot be achieved solely through the ethical actions of the leaders, as there are forces present in the external environment which are not influenced by the ethical considerations. The threat of terrorism is not bound by ethical restrictions, and hence the most effective self-defence measure that can be developed by countries can be highlighted as the investment in military capabilities. Over the years, the UAE has been able to strategically develop its core military strengths and capabilities by not only attaining weapons from the US, but also through strategic training.
The UAE faces a substantial human resource dilemma, as it is unable to develop substantial military forces from within the national population (Lee, 2005)[111]. Hence in order to attain the self-defence objectives the country has resorted to investing in the most advanced military weaponry, through which the lack of military personnel dilemma can be diminished. The latest technologies do not require a high level of human interaction, and can be controlled by a relatively low number of military staff. This is the trade-off which the country has been able to develop over the years, in order to achieve its self-defence goals as it faces an acute shortage of adequate number of military personnel supply in the national environment (Tarock, 1996)[112].
The study has indicated that the self-defence goals of the UAE are highly dependent on the security bilateral relations that it has developed with the US, and the strategic military support that it is able to attain from this strategic partnership between the two countries. A bilateral security agreement refers to a pact between two countries to realize security and stability in the country that faces insecurity. In such arrangements, the two parties involved sign a printed document detailing the security operation to be carried out in a way to stabilize the country facing insecurity. In the recent past, the United States has signed a number of these treaties. These include the DCA (UAE), and the Enduring Strategic Partnership Agreement between the United States of America and Afghanistan. The success of any bilateral security arrangement depends mostly on the realism attached to it (Gromyko, 1997)[113].
According to Gromyko, security arrangements are grounded on two main stakes: force and reason. The arrangement can either fail or succeed depending on the skill and expertise of the diplomats and how the politicians use this arrangement. Realism institutes an operational correspondence of forces grounded on reason and force and the amount and timing in which acumen and power are used in specified situations. In the event that there is lack of realism in a condition where force is applied, the military and the political agreements nosedive and fail to attain the set objectives. Such a situation may result in new conflicts or even state tragedies.
The bilateral military relations between US and the UAE have both positive and negative impacts on the security, economy and social life inthe UAE. On the security, the bilateral agreements have greatly improved the security of the UAE. According to the Interior Ministry of UAE, this has helped UAE protect its borders. This is due to the fact that the US military has a location at the port of Jebel Ali. On the economy, it has contributed to economic ties between these two states. The UAE is considered the United States sole major export market in the Arab region. For example, in the year 2012 there were over twenty two billion US dollars of exports to the UAE.
The comprehensive study has also indicated that the immigration policy of the country has a substantial national security threat for the UAE. The country cannot afford to introduce regulations which result in causing excessive restrictions on the transport and movement of people or goods within the country, as this would have a negative impact on economic activity. However in the context of the contemporary global environment and the strategic partnership of the UAE with the US, the threats present for the country in the internal and the external environment have increased. The heightened immigration policies developed by the UAE are applicable on all categories of immigrants present in the country (Vivoda, 2009)[114]. Guest workers, undocumented workers, second generation immigrants and even naturalized citizens have to undergo the same heightened security procedures. In order to efficiently achieve this, the country has invested in a state of the art surveillance monitoring system through which a preventive terrorism response process has been developed.
The UAE has to develop strategies which can alleviate the national security issues created by the security bilateral arrangements with the US. The country cannot seek to maintain its current confrontational relations with the major stakeholders in the Middle Eastern region. Iran is a core stakeholder in the regional context and therefore, one strategy is to develop a less aggressive foreign policy in reference to Iran. Another strategy is to enhance its self-sufficiency goals so that it can separate the national interest goals from the US foreign policy objectives. This way, UAE can bolster its national security strategies and ensure that it can achieve military and socio-economic growth. Further more UAE has to invest in the military drafting system which is similarly employed by many western countries, to enhance the overall military capabilities. The lack of military development and the small national population available for military service is a core issue for the UAE. The development of an effective military service drafting system would ensure that the country is able to reduce its dependence on the external stakeholders, and hence develop a more proactive and effective national security policy.
The continued excellent bilateral trade and investment relationship reflects how the economy of UAE is increasingly diversifying UAE and its leading role as a modernizing influence in the Arab world. The depth of the commercial cooperation is evident in the path-breaking nuclear energy agreement between the U.S. and the UAE, which allows commerce in civilian nuclear energy between the two countries and is a testament to the U.A.E.’s commitment to peaceful nuclear power development within a strict non-proliferation regime (Moore, 2010)[115] .
6.2 Recommendations & future research
This research activity has highlighted the impact of the security bilateral arrangements between the US and UAE and its implications on the national security objectives of the UAE. The study has critically analyzed the core factors which impact the relations between the two countries, and the national security challenges which the UAE faces due to this relationship. Further research activity can however be conducted on the impact of the changing energy requirements in the world and its impact on the relations between the western and the Gulf countries (McMichael, 2013)[116]. Over recent years substantial efforts have been made by the western countries to diminish their dependence on the Gulf countries for their energy requirements, hence a further research activity can be conducted on the impact of the development of alternative energy sources in western countries, and how this would impact on the foreign policies adopted by countries in the Gulf region.
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